Sermon and Worship Resources (2024)

Births in the ancient world were the domain of women. The women who bore children were often assisted in the birthing process by midwives (Gen. 35:17; 38:28; Exod. 1:1520).

Many women utilized a birthing stool (Exod. 1:16). Upon birth, the newborn often was washed with water, rubbed with salt, and wrapped in cloths (Ezek. 16:4; Luke 2:7, 12). The OT required women to undergo a rite of purification following childbirth (Exod. 13:2, 20; 34:20; Lev. 12:6–8; Luke 2:22–24). This purification lasted forty days after the birth of a son and eighty days after the birth of a daughter and concluded with the sacrifice of both a burnt offering and a sin offering.

Birthing was valued, and women who were considered to be infertile often faced great shame (1Sam. 1:10–11; Luke 1:25). Pain in childbirth was associated with the sin of Eve (Gen. 3:16), and conversely, absence of pain was interpreted as a sign that a woman was particularly righteous. According to Josephus, Moses was born with no pain to his mother, and the Protevangelium of James indicates the same about Mary’s labor with Jesus.

The Bible sometimes employs the language of birth as a spiritual metaphor. In John 3:3–6 Jesus instructs Nicodemus about the need for spiritual birth by explaining that he must be born again. In Rom. 8:22 Paul describes the whole of creation as experiencing the pain of childbirth as it awaits redemption, and in Gal. 4:19 he says that he is in labor for a second time with the Galatians as he desires the formation of Christ in them.

The Bible contains many references to minerals and metals. Minerals can encompass a wide array of topics, thus the focus here is on valuable minerals such as ornamental stones as well as precious and useful metals.

Copper. References to copper within the Bible are few. Several passages discuss the basic origins of copper, such as the gathering of ore or the smelting process (Deut. 8:9; Job 28:2; Ezek. 22:18, 20; 24:11). Several NT passages acknowledge the presence of minted copper coins as currency (Matt. 10:9; Mark 12:42; Luke 21:2). Pure copper, however, was hard to use, although it could be combined with tin to make the alloy bronze.

Bronze. The first biblical reference to bronze is found in Gen. 4:22, in which we are told that Tubal-Cain forged tools out of bronze and iron. Next, bronze is mentioned in its use in the tabernacle built in the desert. Among the bronze items included were the many bronze clasps and bases for the tent construction (Exod. 26:11, 37; 27:1011, 17–19). The altar and all its utensils were made of, or overlaid with, bronze (27:1–8). God also instructed Moses to make a bronze basin for washing (30:18). Moses also made a snake out of bronze and placed it on top of his staff when the Israelites were struck with an abundance of venomous snakes (Num. 21:9). Samson was bound with shackles of bronze (Judg. 16:21), and Goliath wore armor and carried weapons of bronze (1Sam. 17:5–6). Solomon used an extensive amount of bronze in his building of the temple (2Kings 25:16), and there was bronze in the statue that Daniel dreamed of (Dan. 2:32, 35). Many of the prophets used bronze as a way to discuss something that was to be strong or strengthened by God (Isa. 45:2; Jer. 1:18; Ezek. 40:3).

Iron and steel. One of the earliest references to iron in Scripture is its use by the Canaanites to make chariots (Josh. 17:16, 18). This would have been an early use of the metal in the Iron AgeI period (1200–1000 BC). Also, Goliath’s spear, which was as big as a weaver’s rod, is said to have had a head made of iron (1Sam. 17:7). Elisha’s miracle of making a borrowed ax head float (2Kings 6:6) shows the continued value of the metal. In his latter days, David amassed iron among the goods to give Solomon to use in building the temple (1Chron. 22:14; 29:2); Solomon later used these materials with the help of Huram-Abi (2Chron. 2:13–14). Ezekiel discusses the economic value of iron in the context of trading (Ezek. 27:12, 19), and Daniel uses it as a metaphor for discussing strength (Dan. 2:40–41). The NT recognizes the strength of iron when discussing Christ’s iron scepter (Rev. 2:27; 19:15).

Tin. Tin was initially used mainly to produce the copper alloy bronze. Tin was not used in its pure form until well into the Roman period, and even then seldom by itself. The sources of tin in the ancient world are currently debated. The tin from large deposits in Tarshish in southern Spain (Ezek. 27:12) was available through Phoenician traders. Tin is also found in large deposits in Anatolia, but it is currently unknown whether these deposits had been discovered and used during biblical times. A third option is modern-day Afghanistan. Archaeologists have discovered in modern Turkey the remains of a wrecked ship, dated to around 1350 BC, that was carrying ten tons of copper ingots and about one ton of tin ingots. These ingots possibly originated in the area of modern-day Afghanistan and were bound for the Mediterranean trade routes. Tin is mentioned only four times in Scripture, always within a list of other metals (Num. 31:22; Ezek. 22:18, 20; 27:12).

Lead. Lead was used early in human history, but its applications were few. It would have been mined with copper and silver ore and then extracted as a by-product. The Romans used it for various implements, most notably wine vessels. It is referenced nine times within Scripture, either in a list or in reference to its weight. The only two times it is referenced as an object is when Job mentions a lead writing implement (Job 19:24), and when Zechariah has the vision of a woman sitting in the basket with a lead cover (Zech. 5:7, 8).

Gold and silver. Sought after for much of human history, gold and silver have been worked by humans for their ornamental value. The practical uses of these metals within the biblical setting were constrained mainly to their economic and ornamental value. Gold and silver jewelry were used as a form of payment and were minted into coins during the Greco-Roman era. Gold objects are relatively scarce in archaeological finds, mainly because most gold items would have been part of a large treasury carried off as tribute or plunder. Silver appears in the archaeological record more frequently; a remarkable hoard of silver in lump form was found at Eshtemoa (see 1Sam. 30:26–28). This silver has been dated to the time of the kingdom of Judah, after the northern kingdom of Israel had fallen. The silver in raw lump form was most likely used as a monetary payment, even though it had not yet been minted into coins.

Gold in the ancient world came largely from Egypt and northern Africa. The Bible mentions Havilah as a land of gold (Gen. 2:11), as well as Ophir (1Kings 9:28), but the exact location of both places is unknown. Silver was mined in southern Spain, along with other metals, and brought to the area through sea trading. The Athenians of the Classical period were also known for their vast silver-mining operations.

Silver and gold are mentioned repeatedly in the OT in reference to their uses in trading and their economic value. Most notably, the Israelites asked their Egyptian neighbors to give them gold and silver items just before they left Egypt (Exod. 3:22). The tabernacle was highly ornamented with these two metals, as was the temple built by Solomon. It is said that Solomon made the nation so wealthy that silver was considered as plentiful as stone (1Kings 10:27). Perhaps the most notorious articles of silver within Scripture are those paid to Judas for his betrayal of Jesus (Matt. 26:15).

Precious stones. Stones of various origins were used in and around Palestine. The Bible makes few references to their use. Like gold and silver, they were used mainly for their ornamental value. Their scarcity made them highly prized. One notable exception is turquoise. The Egyptian pharaohs were fascinated with turquoise, and they mined extensively for it on the Sinai Peninsula. The remains of several turquoise mines have been found with Canaanite markings, indicating the presence of Canaanite slaves working the Egyptian mines. There was also a line of forts along the northern edge of the Egyptian Empire, used presumably to protect the pharaohs’ turquoise interests. Precious stones were also found in Syria, where Phoenician traders would have been able to bring them from other parts of the known world.

Exodus 28:17–21 describes twelve stones set in the breastpiece worn by the Israelite high priest. Twelve stones likewise appear in the foundations of the new Jerusalem (Rev. 21:19–20). Ezekiel uses nine of these same twelve stones to discuss the adornment of the king of Tyre (Ezek. 28:13).

The Bible uses the blanket term “precious stones” to denote a hoard of riches, such as that owned by Solomon (1Kings 10:10).

Fasting, often linked with prayer, was one avenue of appeal to God in the face of crises, both national and personal. Moses ascended to Mount Sinai and was with God forty days and nights without eating bread or drinking water, both before and after the Israelites’ sin with the golden calf (Exod. 34:28; Deut. 9:818). David fasted when his son was dying (2Sam. 12:15–23). Esther called all the Jews of Susa to fast for three days before she ventured before the king (Esther 4:15–17). Joel called the people to repentance and fasting as the land was devastated by a locust plague (Joel 1:13–14; 2:12). Forty days of fasting, an echo of Moses’ experience, prepared Jesus to face the devil’s temptations (Matt. 4:1–11 pars.).

The OT prophets criticized Israelites who presumed that their religious obligations were met simply by fasting (Isa. 58:1–10; Zech. 7:1–5). When asked why his disciples did not fast and pray, Jesus indicated that sometimes fasting is inappropriate (Matt. 9:14–17 pars.). Luke recorded an addition to Jesus’ statement about new wine in old wineskins: “No one after drinking old wine wants the new, for they say, ‘The old is better’” (Luke 5:39), perhaps suggesting that the accumulation of fasting practices was “new wine” and they ought simply to observe the Day of Atonement.

Generally speaking, in Scripture the word “fool” is used to describe someone in a morally deprived state. It does not, as in contemporary American usage, refer to a person’s lack of intellectual ability or to one whose actions convey those of a buffoon. Terms for “fool” appear all through Scripture, but wisdom literature contains the highest concentration. Proverbs uses over half a dozen words to describe the fool. All of them indicate some kind of moral breach and fall on a scale from the most morally hardened to the naive.

Obstinacy, recalcitrance, and closed-mindedness characterize the morally dense fool. Such individuals have no use for advice from others because they are “wise in their own eyes” (Prov. 3:7; cf. 12:15; 16:2). Fools frequently scoff at correction and rebuke (9:78, 12; 13:1; 14:6; 15:12; 19:25; 20:1; 21:11, 24; 22:10; 24:9). They manifest arrogance (21:24). Fools do not learn from their own mistakes or those of others but instead often repeat them (26:11). One of the main problems is that fools “lack sense,” which ultimately implies that they lack character (see 6:32; 7:7; 9:4, 16; 10:13, 21; 11:12; 12:11; 15:21; 17:18; 24:30). Such a person consistently makes poor decisions and loses the appetite and passion necessary for acquiring wisdom.

According to the book of Proverbs, three qualities make up the essential nature of the fool. First, the fool is unwilling to learn by means of discipline (3:11–12; 17:10), or formal instruction (17:16), or a word of advice (12:15), or personal experience (26:11). Second, the fool lacks self-control. Both the speech (15:2) and the behavior (14:16) of fools demonstrate a lack of restraint. They take the path of least resistance to easy money (1:8–19) and easy sex (7:6–27). Third, the fool is the one who rejects the fear of the Lord (1:7).

In the NT, the fool is the one who does not trust in God or in the power that God displays through the resurrection of Christ (Luke 24:25; Rom. 1:22; 1Cor. 15:36). Jesus makes references to the fool when he tells the stories of the wise and foolish builders (Matt. 7:24–27) and the wise and foolish maidens (Matt. 25:1–13). Paul uses the term “foolish” to rebuke the Galatians for their refusal to accept the gospel (Gal. 3:1). However, in his correspondence with the church in Corinth, Paul reverses the conventional understanding of folly and uses it as a rhetorical strategy to communicate his message. He speaks of the message of the cross as foolishness to the world (1Cor. 1:18). On another occasion, in order to argue against the arrogance of his opponents, Paul engages in “a little foolishness” (2Cor. 11:1) as he boasts about his ministry, which is riddled with failure (2Cor. 11–12).

A controlled point of entry into an otherwise enclosed area such as a city (Gen. 34:24; Ps. 122:2; Acts 9:24), camp (Exod. 32:2627), tabernacle court (Exod. 35:17), palace (2Kings 11:19), temple area (Jer. 36:10; Ezek. 40), prison (Acts 12:10), or house (Acts 10:17).

In the OT, the city gate has a central role in that city’s military, economic, judicial, political, and religious aspects of life. A key component of the defense system of a city, the gate consists of doors fortified with bars (Judg. 16:3; Ps. 107:16; Nah. 3:13) and keeps invading armies out while also serving as the point of departure and return for the city’s army (2Sam. 18:4; cf. God the warrior entering in Ps. 24:7–8). The gate also may serve as the location where news of the battle is delivered (1Sam. 4:18; 2Sam. 18:24). The destruction of the city gate usually means the destruction of the city (Isa. 24:12).

In the economic life of the city, the gate functions as a place of commerce (Gen. 23; 2Kings 7:1) and music (Lam. 5:14). At the entrance to the city gate, the city elders assembled daily to hear cases and render judgment (Job 29:7; Prov. 24:7). Along with the elders, there might be additional witnesses (Ruth 4:1–11; Ps. 69:12). For criminal cases, the gate may also be the location where punishment is enacted (Deut. 17:5; 22:24). Thus, the gate is to be a place where all people can come to obtain justice (2Sam. 15:2–4; Isa. 29:21; Amos 5:15). The gate may hold a seat reserved for the king (2Sam. 19:8) as well as the king’s officials (Esther 2:19–21; 3:2–3). The city gate might also contain shrines to various gods (2Kings 23:8; cf. Acts 14:13).

Some references to gates refer to those of the temple area (Ezek. 44; 46; Pss. 100:4; 118:19–20). In Ezek. 48 the temple area is to have twelve gates, each named after a tribe of Israel (Ezek. 48:30–35; cf. Rev. 21:12–25). The prophet Jeremiah proclaims the word of the Lord from both the city gate(s) (Jer. 17:19–27) and the temple gate(s) (7:1–4).

In the NT, Jesus raises the dead son of a widow at the town gate (Luke 7:11–17) and heals a lame man near the Sheep Gate (John 5:1–15). Peter heals a crippled man near the temple gate (Acts 3:1–10). Jesus mentions gates in his teaching, including a call to enter through the narrow gate of life (Matt. 7:13–14), and his parable of the sheep and the gate, in which Jesus refers to himself as the gate (John 10:1–18). See also City Gates.

Gath is strategically situated in southern Palestine near the Egyptian border and is approximately three miles from the Mediterranean Sea.

In the Late Bronze Age (15501200 BC), Gaza was under the control of Egypt. It is first mentioned in the annals of ThutmoseIII as the provincial capital of Canaan, and it functioned as an Egyptian administrative center in the Amarna and Taanach letters. At the beginning of the Iron Age (1200 BC), the Sea Peoples (esp. the Philistines) took control of this coastal region. This scenario is reflected in Deut. 2:23, which states that the Caphtorites (i.e., the Philistines) displaced the Avvites. Joshua 11:22 also states that after the Israelite conquest, the giant Anakim only remained in Gaza, Gath, and Ashdod (they were most likely assimilated into Philistine culture, perhaps as mercenaries). These three cities, along with Ekron and Ashkelon, compose the Philistine Pentapolis (Josh. 13:3; 1Sam. 6:17–18). The Pentapolis remained unconquered at the end of Joshua’s life (Josh. 13:3), even though Ekron, Ashdod, and Gaza were included in Judah’s allotment (15:45–47). The Judahites took brief control of Gaza, Ashkelon, and Ekron, which they were unable to maintain due to the Philistines’ employment of “iron chariots” on the plains (Judg. 1:18–19). During the period of the judges, Gaza is prominently featured in the exploits of Samson. The city is described as having a gate and a multistoried temple (Judg. 16:1–3, 26). After David’s conquests of the Philistines, King Solomon is said to have dominion over a vast region including Gaza (1Kings 4:24). In the second half of the eighth century BC, Gaza became an Assyrian vassal (under Tiglath-pileserIII). King Hezekiah also briefly subdued the region (2Kings 18:8), but Gaza remained an Assyrian vassal until the end of the seventh century, when the city was briefly occupied by Pharaoh NechoII and then fell to Nebuchadnezzar (see Jer. 47:1–2, 5). Gaza is mentioned in a number of prophetic oracles against Philistia (Jer. 25:20; 47:1; Amos 1:6–7; Zeph. 2:4; Zech. 9:5). It appears only one time in the NT, when Philip is traveling toward Gaza and encounters the Ethiopian eunuch (Acts 8:26).

When God creates humans, he pronounces them “very good/beautiful” (Gen. 1:31). They are designed to be magnificent visual displays of God’s character (1:2627). Human sexuality originally is set in a context of overwhelming beauty. God’s first command is to reproduce and extend this paradise throughout the earth (1:28). Human sexuality is not simply a mechanism for reproduction. From the outset it has been about completion, without which there is loneliness (2:18).

Although the Bible does not define the distinctives of masculinity and femininity in any detail, it does defend that there are distinctions between the genders. Behaviors that confuse the genders are explicitly condemned (Deut. 22:5; 1Cor. 6:9; 11:4–16).

hom*osexual intercourse (Lev. 18:22; 20:13; Rom. 1:24–27; 1Cor. 6:9; 1Tim. 1:10) and intercourse with an animal (Exod. 22:19; Lev. 18:23; 20:15–16; Deut. 27:21) are violations of God’s created order.

Although damaged by sin, marriage continues to be the ultimate human relationship involving intimacy, privacy, and liberty. Marriage is defined by a covenant—a contract witnessed and enforceable, not just a promise made in private. The couple separate from their parents to become “one flesh” (Gen. 2:24).

Once the marriage contract is agreed upon, the couple are married. They cannot consummate the marriage until the economic commitments of the contract have been delivered (Matt. 1:18; 25:1–13). This is celebrated with a feast. Jesus uses this custom as an analogy for his departure and return (John 14:1–3).

Paul commands husbands to love their wives (Eph. 5:25–33; cf. Gen. 24:67; 29:20; 1Sam. 1:5; Eccles. 9:9; Song 8:6–7). Nowhere in the Bible is a wife commanded to love her husband, though older women should teach younger women to do so (Titus 2:3–4). Love is the husband’s responsibility. Love is a command that can be obeyed, not just a pleasurable feeling over which one has no control. The model of husbandly love is Jesus laying down his life for his people.

The ecstasy of making love is celebrated in the erotic Song of Songs, which holds out the hope of such marital delight even now. The axiom of marriage is a righteous jealousy (cf. Exod. 20:5; 34:14; Num. 5:14, 30; Prov. 6:34).

The first year of marriage is especially important and is protected by exemption from military service (Deut. 20:7; 24:5).

When a man dies without a male heir, his widow’s possession of that part of the family estate can result in her marrying a man from another family and so alienating that land. This can be resolved either by the injustice of eviction or by the device of levirate marriage. The nearest male relative of the deceased husband marries the widow, and their son then inherits the deceased husband’s name and title to the land (Deut. 25:5–10; cf. Gen. 38; Ruth).

Concubines are wives from poor families, slaves, or captives, and their marriages are protected (Exod. 21:7–9; Deut. 21:11–14).

Rape of a married woman constitutes adultery by the rapist, not the victim. Consensual sex with a married woman is adultery by both parties. Rape of a single woman is treated as fornication, with no blame attached to the woman. Her father has the option of letting her marry the man or receiving significant financial compensation (Exod. 22:16–17; Deut. 22:23–27). Her father has the right to take the money and refuse the marriage. To falsely accuse a woman of adultery is a crime (Deut. 22:13–21).

Prostitution is an extreme form of adultery or fornication and totally forbidden (Lev. 19:29; Deut. 23:17). Under the new covenant, this warning is heightened by the reality of the gift of the Holy Spirit transforming each believer into the temple of the Lord (1Cor. 6:15–20).

Originally, marriage between siblings is implied (Gen. 4:17, 26; 5:4). Abram married his half sister, Sarai (Gen. 20:12; cf. Gen. 11:29; Num. 26:59). The Mosaic covenant at Sinai bans marriage to blood relationships closer than first cousins and to in-laws (Lev. 18:6–30; cf. 2Sam. 13; 1Cor. 5:1).

Polygamy occurs soon after the fall (Gen. 4:19–24). It is never explicitly forbidden in the Bible, but it is managed by OT law so as to restrain further injustice and damage. It is always seen as less than satisfactory (cf. Gen. 29–30; 1Sam. 1:6; 2Sam. 13; 1Kings 1–2; 11). In the NT, monogamy is mandatory for those who would lead the church (1Tim. 3:2, 12; Titus 1:6).

Physiologically, the heart is an organ in the body, and in the Bible it is also used in a number of metaphors.

Metaphorically, the heart refers to the mind, the will, the seat of emotions, or even the whole person. It also refers to the center of something or its inner part. These metaphors come from the heart’s importance and location.

Mind. The heart refers to the mind, but not the brain, and in these cases does not involve human physiology. It is a metaphor, and while the neurophysiology of the heart may be interesting in its own right, it has no bearing on this use of language. Deuteronomy 6:5 issues the command to love God with all one’s heart, soul, and strength. When the command is repeated in the Gospels, it occurs in three variations (Matt. 22:37; Mark 12:30; Luke 10:27). Common to all three is the addition of the word “mind.” The Gospel writers want to be sure that the audience hears Jesus adding “mind,” but this addition is based on the fact that the meaning of the Hebrew word for “heart” includes the mind.

The mental activities of the metaphorical heart are abundant. The heart is where a person thinks (Gen. 6:5; Deut. 7:17; 1Chron. 29:18; Rev. 18:7), where a person comprehends and has understanding (1Kings 3:9; Job 17:4; Ps. 49:3; Prov. 14:13; Matt. 13:15). The heart makes plans and has intentions (Gen. 6:5; 8:21; Prov. 20:5; 1Chron. 29:18; Jer. 23:20). One believes with the heart (Luke 24:25; Acts 8:37; Rom. 10:9). The heart is the site of wisdom, discernment, and skill (Exod. 35:34; 36:2; 1Kings 3:9; 10:24). The heart is the place of memory (Deut. 4:9; Ps. 119:11). The heart plays the role of conscience (2Sam. 24:10; 1John 3:2021).

It is often worth the effort to substitute “mind” for “heart” when reading the Bible in order to grasp the mental dimension. For example, after telling the Israelites to love God with all their heart, Moses says, “These commandments that I give you today are to be upon your hearts” (Deut. 6:6). Reading it instead as “be on your mind” changes our perspective, and in this case the idiom “on your mind” is clearer and more accurate. The following verses instruct parents to talk to their children throughout the day about God’s words. In order for parents to do this, God’s requirements and deeds need to be constantly on their minds, out of their love for him. Similarly, love for God and loyalty are expressed by meditation on and determination to obey his law (Ps. 119:11, 112). The law is not merely a list of rules; it is also a repository of a worldview in which the Lord is the only God. To live consistently with this truth requires careful, reflective thought.

Emotions and attitude. The heart, as the seat of emotion, is associated with a number of feelings and sentiments, such as gladness (Exod. 4:14; Acts 2:26), hatred (Lev. 19:17), pride (Deut. 8:14), resentment (Deut. 15:10), dread (Deut. 28:67), sympathy (Judg. 5:9), love (Judg. 16:15), sadness (1Sam. 1:8; John 16:6), and jealousy and ambition (James 3:14). The heart is also the frame of reference for attitudes such as willingness, courage, and desire.

A city located in the Judean hills eighteen miles south-southeast of Jerusalem, identified with modern El-Khalil in the West Bank, in an area well supplied with water from nearby wells and springs. Hebron (also known as Kiriath Arba) played a significant role in OT narratives. After Lot chose to dwell in Sodom, Abram settled near the oaks of Mamre in Hebron (Gen. 13:18). When Sarah died, Abraham purchased land in Hebron for her burial (Gen. 23). Both Isaac and Jacob lived in Hebron, and from there Jacob sent Joseph to inquire about his brothers’ welfare (35:27; 37:14). When Moses sent twelve spies into the promised land, their glimpse of the large inhabitants of Hebron significantly influenced their negative report about the prospects for invasion (Num. 13:22, 33).

During the period of the conquest, Hebron’s king was among five kings whom Joshua killed after they attacked Gibeon (Josh. 10). Joshua went on to fight at Hebron, destroying the city and its Anakite inhabitants (11:21). The city was then deeded to Caleb (15:13), but later it was given to the Levites and became a city of refuge (20:7; 21:13).

Hebron played a prominent role during the united monarchy. After Saul died, God instructed David to go to Hebron. There the men of Judah anointed him as king, and he reigned from there for seven and a half years (2Sam. 2:111). During this time, several sons were born to David in Hebron, and it was there that Joab, David’s commander, murdered Abner in revenge for his brother’s death (2Sam. 3; 1Chron. 3:1–4). When David’s authority became widely recognized, the elders of all the Israelite tribes came to Hebron and anointed him king over all Israel. He then moved his capital to Jerusalem after capturing it from the Jebusites (2Sam. 5:1–10; 1Chron. 11:1–9). When Absalom later conspired to become king, he chose Hebron as his headquarters (2Sam. 15:1–10).

Hebron is next mentioned as one of the cities that Rehoboam fortified for the defense of Judah (2Chron. 11:10) and as one of the locations where returning exiles settled (Neh. 11:25).

God begins his creation with light, which precedes the creation of sun, moon, and stars and throughout Scripture is an unqualified good (Gen. 1:35, 15–18; Exod. 10:23; 13:21). In the ancient world, people rarely traveled at night and usually went to bed soon after sunset. The only light in the home was a small oil lamp set on a stand, which burned expensive olive oil. Light is a biblical synonym for life (Job 3:20; John 8:12). Seeing the light means living (Ps. 49:19; see also Job 33:30). Conversely, darkness is often a symbol of adversity, disaster, and death (Job 30:26; Isa. 8:22; Jer. 23:12; Lam. 3:2).

John, who offers perhaps the most profound meditations on light, claims that God is light (1John 1:5). The predicate appropriates the intrinsic beauty of light, a quality that draws people’s hearts back to the author of beauty. For the apostle, light represents truth and signifies God’s will in opposition to the deception of the world (John 1:9; 12:46). Light stands for purity and signifies God’s holiness as opposed to the unrighteousness of the world (John 3:19–21). Light is where God is, and it radiates from the place of fellowship between God and his creation (John 1:7).

Both men and women could take the Nazirite vow (Num. 6:121), consecrating themselves to God and abstaining from all grapevine products, avoiding contact with corpses, and allowing their hair to grow long. The first two stipulations mandate separation from conditions reflective of decay and corruption, clearly an affront to God’s holiness (cf. Amos 2:11–12). Long hair was the sign of the vow, symbolic of the power of God (Judg. 16:17).

Inadvertently touching a corpse interrupted the vow. Rededication necessitated shaving the head and sacrificing sin and burnt offerings, along with a guilt offering for having defiled something holy (Lev. 5:14–19). The vow could last one’s entire life, as was intended for Samson (Judg. 13:7) and Samuel (1Sam. 1:11), or it could simply be for a period of time (Acts 18:18; 21:24). In the latter case, the vow was terminated with the presentation of sin, burnt, and fellowship offerings and shaving and burning the hair at the tabernacle.

An individual could take the vow by personal volition, or it could be imposed by others. Most of the biblical examples fall into the latter category. The angel of the Lord declared that Samson would be a Nazirite for his entire life, although Samson despised the sanctity of the vow in just about every way (Judg. 13–16). Hannah dedicated Samuel for his life (1Sam. 1:11). John the Baptist was also apparently given over to these conditions by the word of the angel Gabriel (Luke 1:15).

The Philistines inhabited the southern coastal plain of Palestine as early as the time of Abraham (Gen. 21:32, 34; 26:1, 8, 1415, 18) and of Moses (Exod. 13:17; 15:14; 23:31), and as late as the exilic (Ezek. 16:27, 57; 25:15–16) and postexilic (Zech. 9:6) periods.

The mention of Philistines in Gen. 21 and 26 refers either to early inhabitants of the territory that later would be inhabited by Philistines or to peoples who later would become part of the Philistine nation. The Philistines mentioned in the Bible may constitute diverse peoples who migrated by land or by sea to the southern coastal region of Palestine over several centuries.

Prior to the influx of at least some of the Philistines from eastern Mediterranean islands, the southern coastal region was, at various times, inhabited by Canaanites (Num. 13:29; Deut. 1:7; Josh. 5:1; cf. Josh. 13:4); Anakites, who fled to Gaza, Gath, and Ashdod after being defeated by Joshua (Josh. 11:21–22); and Avvites, who were replaced by the victorious Caphtorites (Deut. 2:23; Josh. 13:3).

The migration of Judah and other tribes of Israel into Canaan resulted in several centuries of hostility with the Philistines. Judah’s allotment of land included the cities and surrounding areas of Ekron, Ashdod, and Gaza, as well as “the coastline of the Mediterranean Sea” (Josh. 15:45–47). The soldiers of Judah subsequently conquered at least part of this area (Judg. 1:18).

During the time of the judges, Shamgar “struck down six hundred Philistines with an oxgoad” (Judg. 3:31). Samson burned the grain, vineyards, and olive groves of the Philistines when he fastened torches to the tails of foxes (15:4–5). He killed a thousand Philistines with the jawbone of a donkey (15:15) and, after they had gouged out his eyes, killed many Philistine leaders when he pushed over the pillars supporting one of their temples (16:21, 29–30).

In one of their many victories over Israel (cf. Judg. 10:7; 13:1; 15:11; 1Sam. 4:2, 10; 12:9), the Philistines captured the ark of God and placed it in the temple of Dagon in Ashdod (1 Sam. 5:1). The next day the god was found lying on his face before the ark of God.

Saul’s reign as Israel’s king was characterized by war with the Philistines (1Sam. 9:16; 14:52; cf. 7:13) and included both defeat (13:6–7; 23:27; 31:1) and victory (14:13, 22, 31, 47; 17:52–53; 24:1).

The military dominance of the Philistines over Israel during the time of Saul is attributed to their control of blacksmithing and ironwork (1Sam. 13:19–22). This superiority in weapons allowed the Philistines to extend their influence beyond the region of the five cities into Judean territory (1Sam. 4:1; 7:7; 10:5; 13:3, 16–18, 23; 17:1; 29:1, 11; 31:7–8, 10; 2Sam. 5:18, 22; 23:14).

Saul became jealous of David after his defeat of the Philistine champion Goliath (1Sam. 17:4, 50; 18:7–9). To win the hand of Saul’s daughter Michal, David and his men killed two hundred Philistines and presented their foreskins to Saul (18:27). When Saul later attempted to kill David, David sought refuge with the Philistines and lived with them for sixteen months (27:1, 7).

When the Philistines gathered to fight against Israel, David’s host, Achish, invited him to participate in the battle against his enemy Saul (1Sam. 28:1). David was spared the dilemma of fighting against his own people when, fearing his betrayal, the other Philistine rulers refused to let David accompany them (29:4). In the ensuing battle between Israel and the Philistines, Saul’s sons were killed, and Saul took his own life after being critically injured by a Philistine archer (31:2–4).

David’s early success in battle against the Philistines (1Sam. 17:50; 19:8; 23:5) continued upon his accession to kingship after the death of Saul (2Sam. 5:20, 25; 8:1, 12), though in his old age David was too tired to fight well against the Philistines (2Sam. 21:15).

Later battles between Judah and the Philistines took place during the reigns of Jehoram (2Chron. 21:16–17), Uzziah (2Chron. 26:6–7), Ahaz (2Chron. 28:18), and Hezekiah (2Kings 18:8). Jehoshaphat received tribute from the Philistines (2Chron. 17:11).

In the OT there is no language or understanding comparable to modern ways of talking about prayer as conversational or dialogical. Prayer does not involve mutuality. Prayer is something that humans offer to God, and the situation is never reversed; God does not pray to humans. Understanding this preserves the proper distinction between the sovereign God and the praying subject. Therefore, prayers in the OT are reverential. Some OT prayers have extended introductions, such as that found in Neh. 1:5, that seem to pile up names for God. These should be seen as instances not of stiltedness or ostentation, but rather as setting up a kind of “buffer zone” in recognition of the distance between the Creator and the creature. In the NT, compare the same phenomenon in Eph. 1:17.

A presupposition of prayer in the OT is that God hears prayer and may indeed answer and effect the change being requested. Prayer is not primarily about changing the psychological state or the heart of the one praying, but rather about God changing the circ*mstances of the one praying.

The depiction of prayer in the NT is largely consistent with that of the OT, but there are important developments.

Jesus tells his disciples to address God as “Father” (Matt. 6:9; cf. Rom. 8:15; Gal. 4:6). Prayer to God is now to be made in the name of Jesus (Matt. 18:1920; John 14:13; 15:16; 16:23–26).

Prayer can also be made to Jesus (John 14:14), and such devotion to him in the early church is evidence of his being regarded as deity. Unlike anything prior in the OT, Jesus tells his followers to pray for their enemies (Matt. 5:44). Jesus and his followers serve as examples (Luke 23:34; Acts 7:60).

The Holy Spirit plays a vital role in prayers. It is by him that we are able to call out, “Abba, Father” (Rom. 8:15; Gal. 4:6). The Spirit himself intercedes for us (Rom. 8:26). Our praying is to be done in the Spirit (Eph. 6:18; Jude 20; possibly 1Cor. 14:15).

Jesus encourages fervent and even continual or repeated prayer (Luke 18:1–8), but not showy or repetitive prayer (Matt. 6:5–8).

Jesus becomes the model of prayer. He prays before important decisions (Luke 6:12–13) and in connection with significant crisis points (Matt. 14:23; 26:36–44; Luke 3:21; 9:29; John 12:27). He offers prayers that are not answered (Luke 22:41–44) and prayers that are (Heb. 5:7). Even as he tells his disciples to always pray and not give up (Luke 18:1 [which is also the meaning of the sometimes overly literalized “pray without ceasing” in 1Thess. 5:17 NRSV]), so he himself wrestles in prayer (Luke 22:41–44; Heb. 5:7). He has prayed for his disciples (John 17; Luke 22:32), and even now, in heaven, he still intercedes for us (Heb. 7:25). Indeed, our intercession before God’s throne is valid because his is (Heb. 4:14–16).

In comparing modern society to that of biblical times, it is important to acknowledge what is distinctive about prisons in many modern societies. Prisons serve multiple functions, including imposing incarceration as punishment for crimes committed, segregating dangerous criminals from the larger population, deterring crime by imposing a negative incentive, and rehabilitating offenders so that they can eventually return to society. In many cases where modern law imposes incarceration as the penalty for crime, ancient and biblical law imposed economic penalties (such as fines), corporal punishment (beatings), and capital punishment (death). In addition, many of the biblical references to prisons and prisoners involve what in modern society would be considered political rather than criminal incarceration.

The story of Joseph prominently features an Egyptian prison. Joseph was falsely put in prison for the crime of molesting his master’s wife (Gen. 39:1920), while his companions were imprisoned for the otherwise unspecified crime of causing offense to the king (40:1). As this story illustrates, the sentences were not of a predetermined duration, and release depended on the goodwill of the king (Gen. 40:13), a situation in which Paul also found himself hundreds of years later during Roman times (Acts 24:27). When Joseph imprisoned his brothers, it was on a presumption of guilt for the crime of espionage (Gen. 42:16). In Roman times, in contrast, certain prisoners had a right to be put on trial eventually, if not quickly (Acts 25:27; see also 16:37). Imprisonment could also be imposed for failure to pay a debt (Matt. 18:30). Joseph kept Simeon in prison as a guarantee that his brothers would fulfill a prior agreement (Gen. 42:19, 24). In addition to specialized dungeons, prisoners could also be confined in houses (Jer. 37:15; Acts 28:16) and pits (Zech. 9:11).

In both Testaments, release from prison is a symbol of God’s salvation. The theme is prominent in the psalms, as in Ps. 146:7: “The Lord sets prisoners free” (see also Pss. 68:6; 107:10; 142:7). In Acts 12:7 Peter is freed from prison by a divinely sent messenger. Paul wrote a number of letters from prison and identified himself as a prisoner of Christ (Eph. 3:1; Col. 4:10; 2Tim. 1:8; Philem. 1). Some texts refer in mythological terms to a prison that confines spirits or Satan (1Pet. 3:19; Rev. 20:7).

In the Bible, woman is first encountered along with man in Gen. 1:2628. God created “man” in the plural, male and female, and commanded them to reproduce and to fill the earth and subdue it. Being created male and female is set in parallel to being created in the image of God. In the ancient Near East, perhaps the king would be thought of as the image of God. But in Genesis, not only is the first man the image of God, but the first woman participates in the image as well. This is all but unthinkable in the ancient world, and it suggests an unparalleled dignity and worth in womankind.

Genesis records that the human race fell through the instrumentality of a man, a woman, and the serpent. The serpent approached the woman, not the man. The woman was convinced by the serpent and ate the forbidden fruit. She gave some to her husband, who also ate it without saying a word. Thus, the woman can be blamed in part for the fall of the race. Adam was condemned because he “listened to [his] wife” (Gen. 3:17). Her judgment, for heeding the serpent, was pain in childbirth and a desire for her husband, who would rule over her (Gen. 3:16). The exact parameters of this judgment are unclear, but it appears that her desire will be for his position of leadership and will be perpetually frustrated.

Often in the Bible, women are motivated by their desire to have children. Rachel demanded of Jacob, “Give me children, or I’ll die!” (Gen. 30:1). She saw herself in competition with her sister, Leah, in this respect (30:8). The “fruit of the womb” is a reward, and like arrows, the blessed man’s quiver is full of them (Ps. 127:1–5). Note also the beatitude of Ps. 128:3: “Your wife will be like a fruitful vine within your house; your children will be like olive shoots around your table.”

In Genesis, the reproductive capability of slave girls is at the disposal of their owners. Thus, Rachel and Leah’s maidservants became surrogate mothers for a number of their sons (Gen. 30:3–10). Sarah also became frustrated at her inability to conceive, so she gave Hagar to Abraham. The result was great familial turmoil, finally resulting in the banishment of both Hagar and Ishmael, whom she bore to Abraham.

In the beginning, God joined one man and one woman together as husband and wife. But soon this idea was corrupted, and Lamech, a man from Cain’s lineage, is credited with the first polygamous marriage (Gen. 4:19). Although the patriarchs (such as Jacob) did have more than one wife, the household discontent and strife are what is highlighted in those stories, such as with Hagar. In the NT, an elder is to be, literally, a “one-woman man” (1Tim. 3:2; ESV, KJV: “the husband of one wife”), meaning monogamous.

The Torah contains significant legislation regarding women. The daughters of Zelophehad argued that their father died without sons, so in Canaan they were disinherited. God agreed and decreed that in Israel daughters would inherit land in the absence of sons. Only if there were no children at all would the land pass to other kin (Num. 27:1–11).

When a man made a vow, he must fulfill it, but a young woman’s vow was subject to her father. If he remained silent, the vow stood, but if he expressed disapproval, then she was freed from it. If she was married, her husband governed her vows, but if she was divorced, then there was no responsible male over her, and her vow was treated as a man’s (Num. 30:1–16).

Sexual intercourse was also regulated in the law of Moses, insofar as the act rendered both parties ritually impure (Lev. 15:18). Both must bathe and were unclean until evening. A woman’s menstrual discharge also made her unclean for a week. Everything she sat or lay upon was unclean, as was anyone who touched these things. She must wash and offer sacrifice to become clean again (15:18–31).

If a man discovered on his wedding night that his bride was not a virgin, he could accuse her publicly. If her parents provided evidence that she had in fact been a virgin, then the man was severely punished for lying and not allowed to divorce her (otherwise, it was simply a matter of writing a letter to divorce her [Deut. 24:1]). If her virginity could not be proved, she was to be put to death by stoning (Deut. 22:13–21).

In the case of a rape of a betrothed virgin, if it occurred in the city, both the rapist and the victim were stoned, since apparently she had failed to cry out for help and thus, the law assumed, consented to sexual intercourse. If she was raped in the countryside, only the man was killed. But if he raped a woman who was not spoken for, his punishment was that he must marry her without possibility of divorce (Deut. 22:23–29).

Numbers 5:11–31 treats cases where a husband was suspicious that his wife had been unfaithful—that is, a matter of covenantal jealousy. The unprovable was left to God to punish.

In the Bible, women sometimes are afforded dignity beyond what is expected in an ancient Near Eastern provenance. Hagar is the only woman in all ancient Near Eastern literature who gave a name to a deity (Gen. 16:13). In Judg. 4:4, Deborah “judged” Israel (despite the NIV’s “leading,” the underlying Hebrew verb indicates “judging,” as in the NRSV). Even as judge, however, she did not lead the army against the enemy general Sisera; Barak did so. But Barak was unwilling to undertake this mission unless Deborah went with him (4:8). Thus, God ensured that the prestige of killing Sisera went to a woman, Jael (4:9, 21). Another prominent woman was Huldah, to whom the priests turned for guidance when the law was rediscovered (2Kings 22:14).

Many biblical stories feature heroines. Mighty Pharaoh was undermined by two midwives in his attempt to destroy Israel (Exod. 1:15–21). Ruth the Moabite woman gave her name to the book that recounts her trek from Moab to Israel, including her famous oath of loyalty (Ruth 1:16–17). Esther too was a courageous woman whose book bears her name. Heroines are especially prominent in the Gospels, and the women there have the distinction of being the first to witness the risen Lord. Luke’s birth narrative is largely organized around Mary. Priscilla (with her husband) taught and helped to shape the early church (Acts 18:26). Paul lists many women in Rom. 16, calling them “deaconess,” “fellow worker,” and possibly even “apostle.”

Scripture also at times portrays various women as being temptations to men. Eve handed the fruit to Adam (Gen. 3:6). In the wilderness Israel worshiped Moabite gods in conjunction with sexual activity (Num. 25:1–9). Later, Israelites intermarried with Canaanite women, directly leading to worship of their idols (Judg. 3:6). Bathsheba was a temptation to David, and this began a series of events that marred his career as a man after God’s own heart. Solomon loved many foreign women, who turned him to worship their gods. After the exile, the Israelites were admonished by Nehemiah to put away their foreign wives lest history repeat itself (Neh. 13:26).

Women and marriage are used in the Bible as images for spiritual things. Paul writes that marital love mirrors the church’s relationship with Christ (Eph. 5:32–33). A man should love his wife as Christ loved the church. Revelation portrays the climax to human history in the figure of two women: the bride of Christ, adorned with righteous deeds for her husband (19:7–8), and the whor* Babylon, drunk on the blood of the saints (17:5–6). The consummation of the age is when one is judged and the other enters her eternal marital bliss.

The book of Proverbs also separates humankind into two groups, symbolized by two women. Along the path of life, the youth hears the voices of Woman Folly (9:13–18) and of Woman Wisdom (1:20–33) calling out to him. Folly is incarnated in the flesh-and-blood temptation of the immoral woman (7:6–27), whereas Woman Wisdom has her counterpart at the end of the book in the detailed description of the woman of virtue (31:10–31). There, the woman who fears God is set as a prize far above earthly wealth—the highest blessing of the wise.

Paul uses two women from sacred history to help explain his gospel of law versus grace. Hagar the slave woman represents the Mosaic covenant given at Sinai, and the earthly Jerusalem—that is, a mind-set of slavery that futilely attempts to earn God’s favor by works of the law. Sarah was the free woman, and her son was the promised son, who represents the heavenly Jerusalem, the new covenant, and freedom from the requirements of the law (Gal. 4:21–31). Again, two women symbolize two paths and two peoples—one being slaves, the other being God’s free people.

“Word” is used in the Bible to refer to the speech of God in oral, written, or incarnate form. In each of these uses, God desires to make himself known to his people. The communication of God is always personal and relational, whether he speaks to call things into existence (Gen. 1) or to address an individual directly (Gen. 2:1617; Exod. 3:14). The prophets and the apostles received the word of God (Deut. 18:14–22; John 16:13), some of which was proclaimed but not recorded. The greatest revelation in this regard is the person of Jesus Christ, who is called the “Word” of God (John 1:1, 14).

The psalmist declared God’s word to be an eternal object of hope and trust that gives light and direction (Ps. 119), and Jesus declared the word to be truth (John 17:17). The word is particularized and intimately connected with God himself by means of the key phrases “your word,” “the word of God,” “the word of the Lord,” “word about Christ,” and “the word of Christ” (Rom. 10:17; Col. 3:16). Our understanding of the word is informed by a variety of terms and contexts in the canon of Scripture, a collection of which is found in Ps. 119.

The theme of the word in Ps. 119 is continued and clarified in the NT, accentuating the intimate connection between the word of God and God himself. The “Word” of God is the eternal Lord Jesus Christ (John 1:1; 1John 1:1–4), who took on flesh and blood so that we might see the glory of the eternal God. The sovereign glory of Christ as the Word of God is depicted in the vision of John in Rev. 19:13. As the Word of God, Jesus Christ ultimately gives us our lives (John 1:4; 6:33; 10:10), sustains our lives (John 5:24; 6:51, 54; 8:51), and ultimately renders a just judgment regarding our lives (John 5:30; 8:16, 26; 9:39; cf. Matt. 25:31–33; Heb. 4:12).

A surprise attack by a party lying in wait in a concealedposition, often used in the Bible both literally and figuratively.Actual ambushes frequently appear in military contexts, with thoselying in ambush concealing themselves in a field or ravine, at a citygate, or behind hills. God commanded that Israel use an ambush toconquer Ai (Josh. 8). In Judg. 9 Abimelek and the citizens of Shechemeach ambushed the other, as the Israelites later did to the tribe ofBenjamin (Judg. 20). Later King Saul and his army lay in ambushbefore attacking the Amalekites (1 Sam. 15:5), and Jeroboam ofIsrael used an ambush against Judah after the nations sank into civilwar (2 Chron. 13:13). Groups also set ambushes to killindividuals, as the Philistines did numerous times against Samson(Judg. 16), and twice the apostle Paul’s enemies set ambushesto kill him (Acts 23:21; 25:3).

Onealso finds numerous figurative references to ambushes and lying inwait, most often where the authors use descriptions of ambushes todescribe various kinds of evil that people commit against each other.Evil persons commit acts of injustice and offensive words, describedas shooting (Ps. 64:4), bloodshed (Prov. 12:6), and even murder (Hos.6:9) committed from ambush. The figures also describe scenes fromnature and hunting: “Like a lion in cover he lies in wait. . . ; he catches the helpless and drags them off inhis net” (Ps. 10:9).

A non-Israelite woman, probably Philistine, who is best knownfor her role in the deception of her lover, Samson (Judg. 16:4).Enticed by the Philistine rulers’ monetary bribe, Delilah isenlisted to find out the secret of Samson’s strength. Afterlying three times, Samson succumbs to Delilah’s constantnagging and reveals the truth: cutting off his hair would break hisNazirite vow, rendering him powerless. As a result, Samson isdelivered, bald and bound, into the hands of the Philistines byDelilah, whose betrayal ultimately leads to Samson’s final act,resulting in his own death along with many Philistines (Judg.16:5–30).

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The organ of visual perception. The eye is the lamp of the body, so that someone who has a sound or healthy eye can experience light, but someone with a deficient eye experiences only darkness (Matt. 6:22–23). Bright eyes signify alertness and good health (1Sam. 14:27–29; Ps. 38:10), whereas dim eyes signify poor vision, often from old age (Gen. 27:1; 48:10; 1Sam. 3:2). Blindness may be cured by opening the eyes (Isa. 35:5; John 9:14), although Paul was blind even with his eyes open (Acts 9:8). To lift or raise the eyes is to take a look around or look toward something (Gen. 13:10; 18:2; John 11:41). To turn the eyes from something is to no longer look at it (Ps. 119:37; Song 6:5; Isa. 22:4). Something hidden from the eyes is unknown (Num. 5:13; Job 28:21; Luke 19:42), but hiding the eyes from something is to ignore it (Isa. 1:15; Ezek. 22:26; cf. Lev. 20:4). The expression “before the eyes” signifies that an event has taken place in the presence of others, and they have witnessedit.

The eye is an important part of the body (1Cor. 12:16–21). A defective eye disqualified a priest from certain duties (Lev. 21:17–20). A conquering army often gouged out the eyes of the defeated enemy (Judg. 16:21; 2Kings 25:7), rendering them ineffective in battle (1Sam. 11:2). Destroying Israel’s eyes is the first among many punishments listed for breaking God’s covenant (Lev. 26:16). Paul testifies that the Galatians cared enough for him even to pluck out their eyes in order to give them to him (Gal. 4:15). The importance of the eye highlights the importance of Jesus’ demand to pluck it out if it causes one to stumble (Matt. 5:29; 18:9).

Perception and enlightenment. Opening eyes is a theme that runs through both Testaments. At times, opening the eyes simply refers to making one aware of previously unknown information. It may be in this sense that the eyes of Adam and Eve are opened, since they become aware of their nakedness (Gen. 3:7). This same kind of opening occurs when God reveals a well to Hagar (Gen. 21:19), when Balaam sees the angel of the Lord standing in his way (Num. 22:31), and when the disciples on the road to Emmaus recognize Jesus (Luke 24:31). This sense is extended into the spiritual realm, so that the eye is used figuratively as the principal organ of spiritual perception. To open or enlighten the eyes in this sense involves one of the following: (1)allowing one to understand spiritual truth in the law of God (Ps. 119:18), prophetic utterance (Num. 24:3), or by the Spirit of God (Eph. 1:18); or (2)leading someone to repentance and conversion (Acts 26:18). These spiritual eyes may also be blinded or closed, hindering the person from repenting (Isa. 6:10; Matt. 13:13; cf. 2Cor. 4:4).

The eye not only allows one to perceive the world but also helps others perceive the person. David has beautiful eyes, highlighting his handsome appearance (1Sam. 16:12). Leah has weak eyes, a characteristic that is contrasted to the beautiful appearance of her sister, Rachel (Gen. 29:17). A bountiful eye reveals a generous spirit (Prov. 22:9). Haughty eyes reveal arrogance (Ps. 18:27; Prov. 6:17), as do eyes that are exalted (Ps. 131:1; Prov. 30:13). Eyes may reveal one’s pity for another (Ezek. 16:5), but in the administration of justice, the eye is not allowed to pity or spare, meaning that the law will be executed to its fullest extent (Deut. 7:16; Ezek. 5:11). The eye that mocks a father or a mother reveals a person who holds them in contempt (Prov. 30:17).

Direction and evaluation. The eye also serves as a symbol for direction, care, and vast knowledge. Since the eye allows one to see, it helps set the proper course forward, physically (Num. 10:31) or spiritually (1John 2:11). The fact that God’s eyes are always upon the land of Israel demonstrates his care for it (Deut. 11:12). Likewise, his eyes are always upon the righteous, ready to help them (Ps. 34:15). Especially in apocalyptic literature, the many eyes of the living creatures are symbols of God’s omniscience (Ezek. 1:18; Rev. 4:6), while the eyes of God in general are symbols of his awareness (1Kings 9:3; Jer. 32:19; Amos 9:8; Heb. 4:13).

Finally, the eyes are associated with evaluation. The eyes of God often represent his favor or disfavor (Gen. 6:8; Deut. 21:9; 2Kings 10:30). Those who evaluate themselves in their own eyes are often led astray because the eyes can lead to sinful lust (Num. 15:39; Deut. 12:8; Judg. 17:6; Prov. 3:7; 1John 2:16).

A controlled point of entry into an otherwise enclosed areasuch as a city (Gen. 34:24; Ps. 122:2; Acts 9:24), camp (Exod.32:26–27), tabernacle court (Exod. 35:17), palace (2Kings11:19), temple area (Jer. 36:10; Ezek. 40), prison (Acts 12:10), orhouse (Acts 10:17).

Inthe OT, the city gate has a central role in that city’smilitary, economic, judicial, political, and religious aspects oflife. A key component of the defense system of a city, the gateconsists of doors fortified with bars (Judg. 16:3; Ps. 107:16; Nah.3:13) and keeps invading armies out while also serving as the pointof departure and return for the city’s army (2Sam. 18:4;cf. God the warrior entering in Ps. 24:7–8). The gate also mayserve as the location where news of the battle is delivered (1Sam.4:18; 2Sam. 18:24). The destruction of the city gate usuallymeans the destruction of the city (Isa. 24:12).

Inthe economic life of the city, the gate functions as a place ofcommerce (Gen. 23; 2Kings 7:1) and music (Lam. 5:14). At theentrance to the city gate, the city elders assembled daily to hearcases and render judgment (Job 29:7; Prov. 24:7). Along with theelders, there might be additional witnesses (Ruth 4:1–11; Ps.69:12). For criminal cases, the gate may also be the location wherepunishment is enacted (Deut. 17:5; 22:24). Thus, the gate is to be aplace where all people can come to obtain justice (2Sam.15:2–4; Isa. 29:21; Amos 5:15). The gate may hold a seatreserved for the king (2Sam. 19:8) as well as the king’sofficials (Esther 2:19–21; 3:2–3). The city gate mightalso contain shrines to various gods (2Kings 23:8; cf. Acts14:13).

Acity may have more than one gate (Jer. 17:19), each having adifferent name. For example, when Nehemiah sets out to rebuild thewall and gates of Jerusalem, there is mention of the Valley Gate, theDung Gate, and the Fountain Gate (Neh. 2:11–17) as well as theSheep Gate (3:1) and the Jeshanah Gate (3:6).

Somereferences to gates refer to those of the temple area (Ezek. 44; 46;Pss. 100:4; 118:19–20). In Ezek. 48 the temple area is to havetwelve gates, each named after a tribe of Israel (Ezek. 48:30–35;cf. Rev. 21:12–25). The prophet Jeremiah proclaims the word ofthe Lord from both the city gate(s) (Jer. 17:19–27) and thetemple gate(s) (7:1–4).

Inthe NT, Jesus raises the dead son of a widow at the town gate (Luke7:11–17) and heals a lame man near the Sheep Gate (John5:1–15). Peter heals a crippled man near the temple gate (Acts3:1–10). Jesus mentions gates in his teaching, including a callto enter through the narrow gate of life (Matt. 7:13–14), andhis parable of the sheep and the gate, in which Jesus refers tohimself as the gate (John 10:1–18). See also City Gates.

The biblical site of Gaza is located at Tell Harube/Tell’Azza, which is beneath the modern Palestinian city of Gaza. Itis strategically situated in southern Palestine near the Egyptianborder and is approximately three miles from the Mediterranean Sea.Initial excavations were led by W.J. Phythian-Adams in 1922under the auspices of the Palestine Exploration Fund. Additionalexcavations were directed by Asher Ovadiah in 1967 and 1976.

Inthe Late Bronze Age (1550–1200 BC), Gaza was under the controlof Egypt. It is first mentioned in the annals of ThutmoseIII asthe provincial capital of Canaan, and it functioned as an Egyptianadministrative center in the Amarna and Taanach letters. At thebeginning of the Iron Age (1200 BC), the Sea Peoples (especially thePhilistines) took control of this coastal region. This scenario isreflected in Deut. 2:23, which states that the Caphtorites (i.e., thePhilistines) displaced the Avvites. Joshua 11:22 also states thatafter the Israelite conquest, the giant Anakim only remained in Gaza,Gath, and Ashdod (they were most likely assimilated into Philistineculture, perhaps as mercenaries). These three cities, along withEkron and Ashkelon, comprise the Philistine Pentapolis (Josh. 13:3;1Sam. 6:17–18). The Pentapolis remained unconquered atthe end of Joshua’s life (Josh. 13:3), even though Ekron,Ashdod, and Gaza were included in Judah’s allotment (15:45–47).The Judahites took brief control of Gaza, Ashkelon, and Ekron, whichthey were unable to maintain due to the Philistines’ employmentof “iron chariots” on the plains (Judg. 1:18–19).During the period of the judges, Gaza is prominently featured in theexploits of Samson. The city is described as having a gate and amultistoried temple (Judg. 16:1–3, 26). After David’sconquests of the Philistines, King Solomon is said to have dominionover a vast region including Gaza (1Kings 4:24). In the secondhalf of the eighth century BC, Gaza became an Assyrian vassal (underTiglath-pileserIII). King Hezekiah also briefly subdued theregion (2Kings 18:8), but Gaza remained an Assyrian vassaluntil the end of the seventh century, when the city was brieflyoccupied by Pharaoh NechoII and then fell to Nebuchadnezzar(see Jer. 47:1–2, 5). Gaza is mentioned in a number ofprophetic oracles against Philistia (Jer. 25:20; 47:1; Amos 1:6–7;Zeph. 2:4; Zech. 9:5). It appears only one time in the NT, whenPhilip is traveling toward Gaza and encounters the Ethiopian eunuch(Acts 8:26).

The biblical site of Gaza is located at Tell Harube/Tell’Azza, which is beneath the modern Palestinian city of Gaza. Itis strategically situated in southern Palestine near the Egyptianborder and is approximately three miles from the Mediterranean Sea.Initial excavations were led by W.J. Phythian-Adams in 1922under the auspices of the Palestine Exploration Fund. Additionalexcavations were directed by Asher Ovadiah in 1967 and 1976.

Inthe Late Bronze Age (1550–1200 BC), Gaza was under the controlof Egypt. It is first mentioned in the annals of ThutmoseIII asthe provincial capital of Canaan, and it functioned as an Egyptianadministrative center in the Amarna and Taanach letters. At thebeginning of the Iron Age (1200 BC), the Sea Peoples (especially thePhilistines) took control of this coastal region. This scenario isreflected in Deut. 2:23, which states that the Caphtorites (i.e., thePhilistines) displaced the Avvites. Joshua 11:22 also states thatafter the Israelite conquest, the giant Anakim only remained in Gaza,Gath, and Ashdod (they were most likely assimilated into Philistineculture, perhaps as mercenaries). These three cities, along withEkron and Ashkelon, comprise the Philistine Pentapolis (Josh. 13:3;1Sam. 6:17–18). The Pentapolis remained unconquered atthe end of Joshua’s life (Josh. 13:3), even though Ekron,Ashdod, and Gaza were included in Judah’s allotment (15:45–47).The Judahites took brief control of Gaza, Ashkelon, and Ekron, whichthey were unable to maintain due to the Philistines’ employmentof “iron chariots” on the plains (Judg. 1:18–19).During the period of the judges, Gaza is prominently featured in theexploits of Samson. The city is described as having a gate and amultistoried temple (Judg. 16:1–3, 26). After David’sconquests of the Philistines, King Solomon is said to have dominionover a vast region including Gaza (1Kings 4:24). In the secondhalf of the eighth century BC, Gaza became an Assyrian vassal (underTiglath-pileserIII). King Hezekiah also briefly subdued theregion (2Kings 18:8), but Gaza remained an Assyrian vassaluntil the end of the seventh century, when the city was brieflyoccupied by Pharaoh NechoII and then fell to Nebuchadnezzar(see Jer. 47:1–2, 5). Gaza is mentioned in a number ofprophetic oracles against Philistia (Jer. 25:20; 47:1; Amos 1:6–7;Zeph. 2:4; Zech. 9:5). It appears only one time in the NT, whenPhilip is traveling toward Gaza and encounters the Ethiopian eunuch(Acts 8:26).

Physiologically, the heart is an organ in the body, and inthe Bible it is also used in a number of metaphors. The NT uses theGreek term kardia similarly to the OT Hebrew terms leb and lebab andin some cases depends on OT usage.

Mindand Emotions

Metaphorically,the heart refers to the mind, the will, the seat of emotions, or eventhe whole person. It also refers to the center of something or itsinner part. These metaphors come from the heart’s importanceand location.

Mind.The heart refers to the mind, but not the brain, and in these casesdoes not involve human physiology. It is a metaphor, and while theneurophysiology of the heart may be interesting in its own right, ithas no bearing on this use of language. We also should not confusesome modern English idioms or distinctions as being related to thebiblical viewpoint. The Bible does not make a distinction between“head knowledge” and “heart knowledge,” nordoes it employ language making the “heart” good orsuperior and the “head/mind” bad, inferior, or merelyintellectual. It does not prize the emotional over the thoughtful; ithas a more integrated viewpoint.

Deuteronomy6:5 issues the command to love God with all one’s heart, soul,and strength. When the command is repeated in the Gospels, it occursin three variations (Matt. 22:37; Mark 12:30; Luke 10:27). Common toall three is the addition of the word “mind.” The Gospelwriters want to be sure that the audience hears Jesus adding “mind,”but this addition is based on the fact that the meaning of the Hebrewword for “heart” includes the mind.

Themental activities of the metaphorical heart are abundant. The heartis where a person thinks (Gen. 6:5; Deut. 7:17; 1Chron. 29:18;Rev. 18:7), where a person comprehends and has understanding (1Kings3:9; Job 17:4; Ps. 49:3; Prov. 14:13; Matt. 13:15). The heart makesplans and has intentions (Gen. 6:5; 8:21; Prov. 20:5; 1Chron.29:18; Jer. 23:20). One believes with the heart (Luke 24:25; Acts8:37; Rom. 10:9). The heart is the site of wisdom, discernment, andskill (Exod. 35:34; 36:2; 1Kings 3:9; 10:24). The heart is theplace of memory (Deut. 4:9; Ps. 119:11). The heart plays the role ofconscience (2Sam. 24:10; 1John 3:20–21).

Itis often worth the effort to substitute “mind” for“heart” when reading the Bible in order to grasp themental dimension. For example, after telling the Israelites to loveGod with all their heart, Moses says, “These commandments thatI give you today are to be upon your hearts” (Deut. 6:6).Reading it instead as “be on your mind” changes ourperspective, and in this case the idiom “on your mind” isclearer and more accurate. The following verses instruct parents totalk to their children throughout the day about God’s words. Inorder for parents to do this, God’s requirements and deeds needto be constantly on their minds, out of their love for him.Similarly, love for God and loyalty are expressed by meditation onand determination to obey his law (Ps. 119:11, 112). The law is notmerely a list of rules; it is also a repository of a worldview inwhich the Lord is the only God. To live consistently with this truthrequires careful, reflective thought.

Emotionsand attitude.The heart, as the seat of emotion, is associated with a number offeelings and sentiments, such as gladness (Exod. 4:14; Acts 2:26),hatred (Lev. 19:17), pride (Deut. 8:14), resentment (Deut. 15:10),dread (Deut. 28:67), sympathy (Judg. 5:9), love (Judg. 16:15),sadness (1Sam. 1:8; John 16:6), and jealousy and ambition(James 3:14). The heart is also the frame of reference for attitudessuch as willingness, courage, and desire.

Idioms

Theword “heart” also appears in several idioms.

Hardnessof heart.A hard heart is obstinate or averse (Mark 3:5), while a tender heartis humble (2Kings 22:19). In the book of Exodus thetranslations typically say that God or Pharaoh hardened Pharaoh’s/hisheart. These passages in Exodus use not the Hebrew words for hardnessbut rather those for being heavy or for strengthening. The neutralsense of strengthening the heart takes on nuances in context forbeing bold or obstinate. Pharaoh was strengthened in his oppositionto God, and this obstinacy fits the idiom of having a hard heart.

Uncircumcised/circumcisedheart.An uncircumcised heart is a metaphor for an obstinate and rebelliousheart, while a circumcised heart is linked to being humble andfaithful (Lev. 26:41; Deut. 30:6; Jer. 4:4; Acts 7:51). Perhaps themetaphor is based on the role of circumcision in the covenant.

“Aman after his [God’s] own heart” (1Sam. 13:14).This description of David may mean either “according to his[God’s] choice” (cf. 2Sam. 7:21), stressing God’schoice over the people’s choice, or it may mean “inaccordance with his [God’s] desire” (1Sam. 14:7;1Kings 15:3), referring to how David showed conformity withGod’s agenda.

Allthe heart.The phrase “with all [one’s] heart” in some casesmeans “wholeheartedly” or “single-mindedly,”which emphasizes unity of purpose and focus. In other cases it seemsto mean, more broadly, “with all of one’s thinking orperspective” and implies the work of adjusting our worldviewaway from common cultural assumptions and toward God’steaching.

Sayin one’s heart.This expression denotes talking to oneself (i.e., thinking) ratherthan out loud or indicates reflection or deliberation. There areseveral warnings not to lie to oneself—that is, not todeliberate, believe, and act on the stated false premise.

Take[a matter] to heart.To take something to heart is to take it very seriously or to give ithigh priority.

In the OT, humility often refers to people of low socialstatus, the disenfranchised, and those who suffer oppression andpoverty (e.g., Prov. 22:22–23; Amos 2:7; Zech. 7:10). Suchpeople often are referred to as the ’anawim (e.g., Ps. 9:12,18; Isa. 32:7; 61:1; Amos 2:7; 8:4). The Hebrew word ’anah isfrequently translated by the English words “oppress” and“afflict.” The word denotes the sexual humiliation ofwomen (Gen. 31:50; Ezek. 22:10–11), military oppression (Judg.16:5–6, 19), and oppression that comes with slavery (Gen.15:13; Exod. 1:12; Deut. 26:6). As a social status, humility issynonymous with those marginalized by society.

Scripturesometimes associates those socially marginalized with the ethicaldimension of humility, thus making the social status equivalent to asubjective spiritual quality (Pss. 22:26; 37:11–17; 146:7–9;Zeph. 3:11–13). Social humiliation, however, does notnecessarily lead to humility as a virtue. In a number of instances inthe OT, the two remain distinct. In its subjective quality, humilityinvolves submission to one in authority, usually to God (Exod. 10:3;Deut. 8:2–3, 16; Ps. 119:67, 71, 75). On some occasionshumility is related to the act of repentance before God (e.g., Zeph.2:1–3). When paired with “fear of the Lord,”humility implies a person who lives in a posture of pious submissionbefore God (Prov. 15:31–33; 22:4).

Suchis the case with Moses, whom the writer of Numbers describes in thefollowing way: “Now Moses was a very humble man, more humblethan anyone else on the face of the earth” (Num. 12:3). Moses’humility in this situation is displayed in his intimate relationshipwith, and by his submissive attitude toward, the sovereign God(12:4–9).

Inthe NT, Christians take Christ as their model of humility (Matt.11:29; Phil. 2:6–11). The NT writers also call on Christians tohumble themselves before God (James 4:10; 1Pet. 5:5–6) aswell as others, including their enemies (Rom. 12:14–21; Phil.2:3).

In the OT, humility often refers to people of low socialstatus, the disenfranchised, and those who suffer oppression andpoverty (e.g., Prov. 22:22–23; Amos 2:7; Zech. 7:10). Suchpeople often are referred to as the ’anawim (e.g., Ps. 9:12,18; Isa. 32:7; 61:1; Amos 2:7; 8:4). The Hebrew word ’anah isfrequently translated by the English words “oppress” and“afflict.” The word denotes the sexual humiliation ofwomen (Gen. 31:50; Ezek. 22:10–11), military oppression (Judg.16:5–6, 19), and oppression that comes with slavery (Gen.15:13; Exod. 1:12; Deut. 26:6). As a social status, humility issynonymous with those marginalized by society.

Scripturesometimes associates those socially marginalized with the ethicaldimension of humility, thus making the social status equivalent to asubjective spiritual quality (Pss. 22:26; 37:11–17; 146:7–9;Zeph. 3:11–13). Social humiliation, however, does notnecessarily lead to humility as a virtue. In a number of instances inthe OT, the two remain distinct. In its subjective quality, humilityinvolves submission to one in authority, usually to God (Exod. 10:3;Deut. 8:2–3, 16; Ps. 119:67, 71, 75). On some occasionshumility is related to the act of repentance before God (e.g., Zeph.2:1–3). When paired with “fear of the Lord,”humility implies a person who lives in a posture of pious submissionbefore God (Prov. 15:31–33; 22:4).

Suchis the case with Moses, whom the writer of Numbers describes in thefollowing way: “Now Moses was a very humble man, more humblethan anyone else on the face of the earth” (Num. 12:3). Moses’humility in this situation is displayed in his intimate relationshipwith, and by his submissive attitude toward, the sovereign God(12:4–9).

Inthe NT, Christians take Christ as their model of humility (Matt.11:29; Phil. 2:6–11). The NT writers also call on Christians tohumble themselves before God (James 4:10; 1Pet. 5:5–6) aswell as others, including their enemies (Rom. 12:14–21; Phil.2:3).

One of several different types of stone implements used togrind grain, usually by hand. This chore was often performed daily,so the sound of mills grinding grain became a symbol of normal life(Jer. 25:10; Rev. 18:22). Women (Matt. 24:41) or servants (Exod.11:5) typically used mills, or prisoners, like Samson (Judg. 16:21),might be made to perform the mundane task.

Millsoften were small enough for one person to use. Apparently, the oldesttype of hand mill included a lower, concave stone made of basalt orother hard stone (Job 41:24). The person grinding rubbed a second,smaller, loaf-shaped upper millstone (Judg. 9:53) back and forth onthe lower one to grind the grain. Later mills had two circular slabs,and the user rotated the upper stone by a wooden peg attached as ahandle. Larger mills were also used in commercial operations. Alarge, well-carved double inverted cone was set on a cone-shapedlower stone. A pair of people or animals rotated the upper stone bypushing posts set into sockets. References to casting largemillstones into the sea (Matt. 18:6; Rev. 18:21) probably refer tosuch a large upper millstone.

The names of God given in the Bible are an important means ofrevelation about his character and works. The names come from threesources: God himself, those who encounter him in the biblical record,and the biblical writers. This article is concerned mainly with thenames that occur in the OT, though the NT will be referenced whenhelpful.

Inthe Bible the meaning of names is often significant and points to thecharacter of the person so named. As might be expected, this isespecially true for God. The names that he gives to himself alwaysare a form of revelation; the names that humans give to God often area form of testimony.

Yahweh:The Lord

Pronunciation.Unquestionably, for OT revelation the most important name is “(the)Lord.” In English Bibles this represents the name declared byGod to Moses at the burning bush (“I am who I am” [Exod.3:13–15]) and the related term used elsewhere in the OT; inHebrew this term consists of the four consonants YHWH and istherefore known as the Tetragrammaton (“four letters”).Hebrew does not count vowels as part of its alphabet; in biblicaltimes one simply wrote the consonants of a word and the readersupplied the correct vowels by knowing the vocabulary, grammar, andcontext. However, to avoid violating the commandment in the Decaloguethat prohibits the misuse of God’s name (Exod. 20:7; Deut.5:11), the Jews stopped pronouncing it. Consequently, no one todayknows its correct original pronunciation, but the best evidenceavailable suggests “Yahweh,” which has become theconventional pronunciation (consider the Hebrew word “hallelujah,”which actually is “hallelu-Yah,” hence “praise theLord”). In ancient Jewish tradition, “Adonai” (“myLord”) was substituted for “Yahweh.” In fact, whenHebrew eventually developed a vowel notation system, instead of thevowels for “Yahweh,” the vowels for “Adonai”were indicated whenever YHWH appeared in the biblical text, as areminder. Combining the consonants YHWH with the vowels of “Adonai”yields something like “Yehowah,” which is the origin ofthe familiar (but mistaken and nonexistent) “Jehovah.”English Bibles typically use “Lord” (small capitalletters) for “Yahweh,” and “Lord” (regularletters) for “Adonai,” which distinguishes thetwo.

Meaning.More vital than the matter of the pronunciation of YHWH is thequestion of its meaning. There seem to be two main opinions. One seesYHWH as denoting eternal self-existence, partly because it issuggested by the grammar of Exod. 3:14 (the words “I am”use a form of the Hebrew verb that suggests being without beginningor end) and partly because that is the meaning Jesus apparentlyascribes to it in John 8:58. The other opinion, suggested by usage,is that YHWH indicates dynamic, active, divine presence: God’sbeing present in a special way to act on someone’s behalf(e.g., Gen. 26:28; 39:2–3; Josh. 6:27; 1Sam. 18:12–14).This idea also appears in the episode of the burning bush (Exod.3:12): when Moses protests his inadequacy to confront Pharaoh, Godassures him of his presence, a reality noted with other prophets(1Sam. 3:19; Jer. 1:8).

Perhapsthe best points of reference for understanding the meaning of YHWHare God’s own proclamations. In addition to Exod. 3:13–15,at least two other passages in Exodus give God’s commentary (asit were) about the meaning of his name. An important one is Exod.34:5–7. A key passage in the theology proper of ancient Israel,its themes echo in later OT Scripture (Num. 14:18–19; Ps.103:7–12; Jon. 4:2). What is noteworthy about the texts citedis that all of them say something remarkable about the grace of God.This fits, for the revelation of Exod. 34:5–7 is given in thecontext of covenant renewal after the incident of the golden calf.Moses invokes God’s name in the Numbers text to avoidcatastrophic judgment when the Israelites refuse to enter thepromised land. The psalm text picks up this theme and connects itwith God’s revelation of his ways to the chosen people. Jonah,remarkably, affirms that the same grace extends even toward a wickedGentile city such as Nineveh.

Anothersuch passage is Exod. 6:2–8.Here God reaffirms hisredemptive purpose for captive Israel, despite the fact that Moses’first encounter with Pharaoh has not gone well. God assures theprophet that he has remembered his covenant with the patriarchs, whomhe says did not know him as “Yahweh,” which probablymeans that the patriarchs did not experience him in the way orcharacter that their descendants would in the exodus event (though itis possible to translate the Hebrew here as a rhetorical questionwith an affirmative idea: “And indeed, by my name Yahweh did Inot make myself known to them?”). God then proceeds to outlinethe redemptive experience in its fullness: deliverance from bondage,reception into a covenant relationship, and possession of the landpromised to their ancestors (vv. 6–8). The statement isbracketed with this declaration: “I am the Lord” (vv. 2,8). One stated purpose of this redemptive work is that Israel mightcome to understand this (v.7). This is important to notebecause a central theme of Exodus as a book is the identity of theGod of Israel. This concern prompts Moses to ask for God’s nameat the burning bush (3:13), and this contempt for the God of theenslaved Hebrews causes Pharaoh to be dismissive at his first meetingwith Moses and Aaron (5:2). Moses asks with the concern of a seekerand receives one of the most profound declarations of God’sidentity in the Bible. Pharaoh asks with the contempt of a scornerand receives one of the most powerful displays of God’sidentity in the Bible (the plagues). The contrast is both strikingand instructive. The meaning of God’s name, then, is revealedin works as well as words, and his purpose is that not just hispeople but all peoples may come to understand who he is. Yet anothermajestic statement in the book of Exodus (9:13–16) makes thisabundantly clear.

Basedon this pattern of usage, the name “Yahweh” seems tosignify especially the active presence of God to bless, deliver, orotherwise aid his people. Where this presence is absent, there is nosuccess, victory, protection, or peace (Num. 14:39–45; Josh.7:10–12; Judg. 16:20; 1Sam. 16:13–14). The messagethat God not only is but also is present to save and deliver may wellbe the most important truth communicated in the OT, and it is onlynatural to see its ultimate embodiment in the person and work ofChrist (Isa. 7:14; cf. Matt. 1:21–23).

Nameused in combination.The name “Yahweh” also is used in combination with otherterms. After God grants a military victory to Israel over theAmalekites, Moses names a commemorative altar “Yahweh Nissi,”meaning “the Lord is my Banner” (Exod. 17:15). InEzekiel’s temple vision Jerusalem is called “YahwehShammah,” meaning “the Lord is there” (Ezek.48:35). A familiar expression is “the Lord of hosts,”which is generally comparable to the expression “commander inchief” used in American culture (cf. 1Kings 22:19–23).

Elohim

Thisis the first term for God encountered in the Bible, right in theopening verse. It is a more generic term, denoting deity in contrastto humans or angels. “Elohim” is a plural form; thesingular terms “El” and “Eloah” are usedoccasionally, particularly in poetic texts. “El” is acommon term in the biblical world; in fact, it is the name for thefather of Baal in the Canaanite religion. This may explain why theBible commonly uses the plural form, to distinguish the one true God,the God of Israel, from his pagan rivals. Others explain the pluralform as a “plural of majesty” or “plural ofintensity,” though it is uncertain just what this would mean.Some see the foundation for NT revelation of the Trinity (Gen.1:26–27; 11:6–7; cf. John 17:20–22), but this isunlikely. The plural form also can serve simply as a common noun,referring to pagan deities (Exod. 12:12), angels (Ps. 97:7,arguably), or even human authorities (Exod. 22:28, possibly).

“El”also occurs in combination with other descriptive terms. The bestknown is “El Shaddai,” meaning “God Almighty”(Gen. 17:1). The precise meaning of “Shaddai” isuncertain, but it seems to have the notion of “great/powerfulone.” The distressed Hagar, caught, comforted, and counseled bythe mysterious personage at a well, calls God “El Roi,”which means “the God who sees me” (Gen. 16:13). One ofthe most exalted expressions to describe God is “El Elyon,”meaning “God Most High.” This title seems to haveparticular reference to God as the owner and master of creation (Gen.14:18–20).

Adonai

Asnoted above, this common word meaning simply “(my) lord/master”is used regularly in place of the personal name of God revealed toMoses in Exod. 3:14. And in the OT of most English Bibles this isindicated by printing “Lord” as opposed to “Lord”(using small capital letters). However, “Adonai” is usedof God in some noteworthy instances, such as Isaiah’s loftyvision of God exalted in Isa. 6 and the prophecy of Immanuel in Isa.7:14. In time, this became the preferred term for referring to God,and the LXX reflected this by using the Greek word kyrios (“lord”)for Yahweh. This makes the ease with which NT writers transfer theuse of the term to Jesus (e.g., 1Cor. 12:3) a strong indicationof their Christology.

The names of God given in the Bible are an important means ofrevelation about his character and works. The names come from threesources: God himself, those who encounter him in the biblical record,and the biblical writers. This article is concerned mainly with thenames that occur in the OT, though the NT will be referenced whenhelpful.

Inthe Bible the meaning of names is often significant and points to thecharacter of the person so named. As might be expected, this isespecially true for God. The names that he gives to himself alwaysare a form of revelation; the names that humans give to God often area form of testimony.

Yahweh:The Lord

Pronunciation.Unquestionably, for OT revelation the most important name is “(the)Lord.” In English Bibles this represents the name declared byGod to Moses at the burning bush (“I am who I am” [Exod.3:13–15]) and the related term used elsewhere in the OT; inHebrew this term consists of the four consonants YHWH and istherefore known as the Tetragrammaton (“four letters”).Hebrew does not count vowels as part of its alphabet; in biblicaltimes one simply wrote the consonants of a word and the readersupplied the correct vowels by knowing the vocabulary, grammar, andcontext. However, to avoid violating the commandment in the Decaloguethat prohibits the misuse of God’s name (Exod. 20:7; Deut.5:11), the Jews stopped pronouncing it. Consequently, no one todayknows its correct original pronunciation, but the best evidenceavailable suggests “Yahweh,” which has become theconventional pronunciation (consider the Hebrew word “hallelujah,”which actually is “hallelu-Yah,” hence “praise theLord”). In ancient Jewish tradition, “Adonai” (“myLord”) was substituted for “Yahweh.” In fact, whenHebrew eventually developed a vowel notation system, instead of thevowels for “Yahweh,” the vowels for “Adonai”were indicated whenever YHWH appeared in the biblical text, as areminder. Combining the consonants YHWH with the vowels of “Adonai”yields something like “Yehowah,” which is the origin ofthe familiar (but mistaken and nonexistent) “Jehovah.”English Bibles typically use “Lord” (small capitalletters) for “Yahweh,” and “Lord” (regularletters) for “Adonai,” which distinguishes thetwo.

Meaning.More vital than the matter of the pronunciation of YHWH is thequestion of its meaning. There seem to be two main opinions. One seesYHWH as denoting eternal self-existence, partly because it issuggested by the grammar of Exod. 3:14 (the words “I am”use a form of the Hebrew verb that suggests being without beginningor end) and partly because that is the meaning Jesus apparentlyascribes to it in John 8:58. The other opinion, suggested by usage,is that YHWH indicates dynamic, active, divine presence: God’sbeing present in a special way to act on someone’s behalf(e.g., Gen. 26:28; 39:2–3; Josh. 6:27; 1Sam. 18:12–14).This idea also appears in the episode of the burning bush (Exod.3:12): when Moses protests his inadequacy to confront Pharaoh, Godassures him of his presence, a reality noted with other prophets(1Sam. 3:19; Jer. 1:8).

Perhapsthe best points of reference for understanding the meaning of YHWHare God’s own proclamations. In addition to Exod. 3:13–15,at least two other passages in Exodus give God’s commentary (asit were) about the meaning of his name. An important one is Exod.34:5–7. A key passage in the theology proper of ancient Israel,its themes echo in later OT Scripture (Num. 14:18–19; Ps.103:7–12; Jon. 4:2). What is noteworthy about the texts citedis that all of them say something remarkable about the grace of God.This fits, for the revelation of Exod. 34:5–7 is given in thecontext of covenant renewal after the incident of the golden calf.Moses invokes God’s name in the Numbers text to avoidcatastrophic judgment when the Israelites refuse to enter thepromised land. The psalm text picks up this theme and connects itwith God’s revelation of his ways to the chosen people. Jonah,remarkably, affirms that the same grace extends even toward a wickedGentile city such as Nineveh.

Anothersuch passage is Exod. 6:2–8.Here God reaffirms hisredemptive purpose for captive Israel, despite the fact that Moses’first encounter with Pharaoh has not gone well. God assures theprophet that he has remembered his covenant with the patriarchs, whomhe says did not know him as “Yahweh,” which probablymeans that the patriarchs did not experience him in the way orcharacter that their descendants would in the exodus event (though itis possible to translate the Hebrew here as a rhetorical questionwith an affirmative idea: “And indeed, by my name Yahweh did Inot make myself known to them?”). God then proceeds to outlinethe redemptive experience in its fullness: deliverance from bondage,reception into a covenant relationship, and possession of the landpromised to their ancestors (vv. 6–8). The statement isbracketed with this declaration: “I am the Lord” (vv. 2,8). One stated purpose of this redemptive work is that Israel mightcome to understand this (v.7). This is important to notebecause a central theme of Exodus as a book is the identity of theGod of Israel. This concern prompts Moses to ask for God’s nameat the burning bush (3:13), and this contempt for the God of theenslaved Hebrews causes Pharaoh to be dismissive at his first meetingwith Moses and Aaron (5:2). Moses asks with the concern of a seekerand receives one of the most profound declarations of God’sidentity in the Bible. Pharaoh asks with the contempt of a scornerand receives one of the most powerful displays of God’sidentity in the Bible (the plagues). The contrast is both strikingand instructive. The meaning of God’s name, then, is revealedin works as well as words, and his purpose is that not just hispeople but all peoples may come to understand who he is. Yet anothermajestic statement in the book of Exodus (9:13–16) makes thisabundantly clear.

Basedon this pattern of usage, the name “Yahweh” seems tosignify especially the active presence of God to bless, deliver, orotherwise aid his people. Where this presence is absent, there is nosuccess, victory, protection, or peace (Num. 14:39–45; Josh.7:10–12; Judg. 16:20; 1Sam. 16:13–14). The messagethat God not only is but also is present to save and deliver may wellbe the most important truth communicated in the OT, and it is onlynatural to see its ultimate embodiment in the person and work ofChrist (Isa. 7:14; cf. Matt. 1:21–23).

Nameused in combination.The name “Yahweh” also is used in combination with otherterms. After God grants a military victory to Israel over theAmalekites, Moses names a commemorative altar “Yahweh Nissi,”meaning “the Lord is my Banner” (Exod. 17:15). InEzekiel’s temple vision Jerusalem is called “YahwehShammah,” meaning “the Lord is there” (Ezek.48:35). A familiar expression is “the Lord of hosts,”which is generally comparable to the expression “commander inchief” used in American culture (cf. 1Kings 22:19–23).

Elohim

Thisis the first term for God encountered in the Bible, right in theopening verse. It is a more generic term, denoting deity in contrastto humans or angels. “Elohim” is a plural form; thesingular terms “El” and “Eloah” are usedoccasionally, particularly in poetic texts. “El” is acommon term in the biblical world; in fact, it is the name for thefather of Baal in the Canaanite religion. This may explain why theBible commonly uses the plural form, to distinguish the one true God,the God of Israel, from his pagan rivals. Others explain the pluralform as a “plural of majesty” or “plural ofintensity,” though it is uncertain just what this would mean.Some see the foundation for NT revelation of the Trinity (Gen.1:26–27; 11:6–7; cf. John 17:20–22), but this isunlikely. The plural form also can serve simply as a common noun,referring to pagan deities (Exod. 12:12), angels (Ps. 97:7,arguably), or even human authorities (Exod. 22:28, possibly).

“El”also occurs in combination with other descriptive terms. The bestknown is “El Shaddai,” meaning “God Almighty”(Gen. 17:1). The precise meaning of “Shaddai” isuncertain, but it seems to have the notion of “great/powerfulone.” The distressed Hagar, caught, comforted, and counseled bythe mysterious personage at a well, calls God “El Roi,”which means “the God who sees me” (Gen. 16:13). One ofthe most exalted expressions to describe God is “El Elyon,”meaning “God Most High.” This title seems to haveparticular reference to God as the owner and master of creation (Gen.14:18–20).

Adonai

Asnoted above, this common word meaning simply “(my) lord/master”is used regularly in place of the personal name of God revealed toMoses in Exod. 3:14. And in the OT of most English Bibles this isindicated by printing “Lord” as opposed to “Lord”(using small capital letters). However, “Adonai” is usedof God in some noteworthy instances, such as Isaiah’s loftyvision of God exalted in Isa. 6 and the prophecy of Immanuel in Isa.7:14. In time, this became the preferred term for referring to God,and the LXX reflected this by using the Greek word kyrios (“lord”)for Yahweh. This makes the ease with which NT writers transfer theuse of the term to Jesus (e.g., 1Cor. 12:3) a strong indicationof their Christology.

Both men and women could take the Nazirite vow (Num. 6:1–21),consecrating themselves to God and abstaining from all grapevineproducts, avoiding contact with corpses, and allowing their hair togrow long. The first two stipulations mandate separation fromconditions reflective of decay and corruption, clearly an affront toGod’s holiness (cf. Amos 2:11–12). Long hair was the signof the vow, symbolic of the power of God (Judg. 16:17).

Inadvertentlytouching a corpse interrupted the vow. Rededication necessitatedshaving the head and sacrificing sin and burnt offerings, along witha guilt offering for having defiled something holy (Lev. 5:14–19).The vow could last one’s entire life, as was intended forSamson (Judg. 13:7) and Samuel (1Sam. 1:11), or it could simplybe for a period of time (Acts 18:18; 21:24). In the latter case, thevow was terminated with the presentation of sin, burnt, andfellowship offerings and shaving and burning the hair at thetabernacle.

Anindividual could take the vow by personal volition, or it could beimposed by others. Most of the biblical examples fall into the lattercategory. The angel of the Lord declared that Samson would be aNazirite for his entire life, although Samson despised the sanctityof the vow in just about every way (Judg. 13–16). Hannahdedicated Samuel for his life (1Sam. 1:11). John the Baptistwas also apparently given over to these conditions by the word of theangel Gabriel (Luke 1:15).

Imprisonmentof Criminals

Incomparing modern society to that of biblical times, it is importantto acknowledge what is distinctive about prisons in many modernsocieties. Prisons serve multiple functions, including imposingincarceration as punishment for crimes committed, segregatingdangerous criminals from the larger population, deterring crime byimposing a negative incentive, and rehabilitating offenders so thatthey can eventually return to society. In many cases where modern lawimposes incarceration as the penalty for crime, ancient and biblicallaw imposed economic penalties (such as fines), corporal punishment(beatings), and capital punishment (death). In addition, many of thebiblical references to prisons and prisoners involve what in modernsociety would be considered political rather than criminalincarceration.

Thestory of Joseph prominently features an Egyptian prison. Joseph wasfalsely put in prison for the crime of molesting his master’swife (Gen. 39:19–20), while his companions were imprisoned forthe otherwise unspecified crime of causing offense to the king(40:1). As this story illustrates, the sentences were not of apredetermined duration, and release depended on the goodwill of theking (Gen. 40:13), a situation in which Paul also found himselfhundreds of years later during Roman times (Acts 24:27). When Josephimprisoned his brothers, it was on a presumption of guilt for thecrime of espionage (Gen. 42:16). In Roman times, in contrast, certainprisoners had a right to be put on trial eventually, if not quickly(Acts 25:27; see also 16:37). Imprisonment could also be imposed forfailure to pay a debt (Matt. 18:30). Joseph kept Simeon in prison asa guarantee that his brothers would fulfill a prior agreement (Gen.42:19, 24). In addition to specialized dungeons, prisoners could alsobe confined in houses (Jer. 37:15; Acts 28:16) and pits (Zech. 9:11).

PoliticalImprisonment

Ina number of biblical stories individuals are imprisoned for what wewould today describe as political or ideological reasons. Samson wasimprisoned by the Philistines in retaliation for the havoc that hehad wreaked in their land and probably to prevent further incidents(Judg. 16:21). While in prison, Samson was enslaved. SeveralIsraelite and Judean kings were imprisoned by their Mesopotamianoverlords for offenses ranging from failure to pay taxes to revolt,including Hoshea (2Kings 17:4), Jehoiachin (2Kings25:27–29), Manasseh (2Chron. 33:11), and Zedekiah (Jer.52:11). In some cases, the imprisonment of such elites was brutal andinvolved torture (2Chron. 33:11; Jer. 52:11), though Jehoiachinwas later released from prison and allowed to live out his captivityin some comfort (2Kings 25:27–29).

Inthe NT, individuals were also imprisoned for such crimes. Barabbaswas imprisoned by the Roman government of Judea for participating inan insurrection (Mark 15:7). Saul of Tarsus imprisoned a number ofChristians, apparently without what we would today recognize as anycriminal offense (Acts 8:3). Peter was imprisoned by Herod forpolitical gain (Acts 12:4). Paul and Silas were imprisoned fordisturbing the peace of Philippi (Acts 16:23).

Imprisonmentof Prophets

Aspecial case of political incarceration is the imprisonment ofprophets. From the point of view of the biblical writers, prophetswere imprisoned for speaking the truth to a powerful person who didnot want to hear it. From the point of view of those in power,imprisoning dissenters was an important way of suppressing opinionsthat could undermine the regime. In some cases, the imprisonment ofdissenters or troublemakers was a prelude to execution (John theBaptist and Jesus). The practice of imprisonment instead of immediateexecution may reflect the ambivalent attitude of rulers towardcontroversial prophets: they could not be allowed to move aboutfreely in society, but they had some status or right as prophet thatprevented their execution. In some cases, prophets managed toconfront a king without being punished, suggesting that there was acertain level of tolerance for them even when they were notsupportive of royal power, a tolerance that might have contributed tothe use of imprisonment instead of execution.

Ahabimprisoned Micaiah son of Imlah after he delivered an unfavorableoracle (1Kings 22:27). Similarly, Asa imprisoned Hanani theseer (2Chron. 16:10). These kings may have hoped that suchtreatment would coerce better news in the future. Jeremiah (Jer.37:15) and John the Baptist (Mark 6:17) were also imprisoned fordelivering unwelcome messages to those in power.

TheologicalSignificance

Inboth Testaments, release from prison is a symbol of God’ssalvation. The theme is prominent in the psalms, as in Ps. 146:7:“The Lord sets prisoners free” (see also Pss. 68:6;107:10; 142:7). In Acts 12:7 Peter is freed from prison by a divinelysent messenger. Paul wrote a number of letters from prison andidentified himself as a prisoner of Christ (Eph. 3:1; Col. 4:10;2Tim. 1:8; Philem. 1). Some texts refer in mythological termsto a prison that confines spirits or Satan (1Pet. 3:19; Rev.20:7).

Imprisonmentof Criminals

Incomparing modern society to that of biblical times, it is importantto acknowledge what is distinctive about prisons in many modernsocieties. Prisons serve multiple functions, including imposingincarceration as punishment for crimes committed, segregatingdangerous criminals from the larger population, deterring crime byimposing a negative incentive, and rehabilitating offenders so thatthey can eventually return to society. In many cases where modern lawimposes incarceration as the penalty for crime, ancient and biblicallaw imposed economic penalties (such as fines), corporal punishment(beatings), and capital punishment (death). In addition, many of thebiblical references to prisons and prisoners involve what in modernsociety would be considered political rather than criminalincarceration.

Thestory of Joseph prominently features an Egyptian prison. Joseph wasfalsely put in prison for the crime of molesting his master’swife (Gen. 39:19–20), while his companions were imprisoned forthe otherwise unspecified crime of causing offense to the king(40:1). As this story illustrates, the sentences were not of apredetermined duration, and release depended on the goodwill of theking (Gen. 40:13), a situation in which Paul also found himselfhundreds of years later during Roman times (Acts 24:27). When Josephimprisoned his brothers, it was on a presumption of guilt for thecrime of espionage (Gen. 42:16). In Roman times, in contrast, certainprisoners had a right to be put on trial eventually, if not quickly(Acts 25:27; see also 16:37). Imprisonment could also be imposed forfailure to pay a debt (Matt. 18:30). Joseph kept Simeon in prison asa guarantee that his brothers would fulfill a prior agreement (Gen.42:19, 24). In addition to specialized dungeons, prisoners could alsobe confined in houses (Jer. 37:15; Acts 28:16) and pits (Zech. 9:11).

PoliticalImprisonment

Ina number of biblical stories individuals are imprisoned for what wewould today describe as political or ideological reasons. Samson wasimprisoned by the Philistines in retaliation for the havoc that hehad wreaked in their land and probably to prevent further incidents(Judg. 16:21). While in prison, Samson was enslaved. SeveralIsraelite and Judean kings were imprisoned by their Mesopotamianoverlords for offenses ranging from failure to pay taxes to revolt,including Hoshea (2Kings 17:4), Jehoiachin (2Kings25:27–29), Manasseh (2Chron. 33:11), and Zedekiah (Jer.52:11). In some cases, the imprisonment of such elites was brutal andinvolved torture (2Chron. 33:11; Jer. 52:11), though Jehoiachinwas later released from prison and allowed to live out his captivityin some comfort (2Kings 25:27–29).

Inthe NT, individuals were also imprisoned for such crimes. Barabbaswas imprisoned by the Roman government of Judea for participating inan insurrection (Mark 15:7). Saul of Tarsus imprisoned a number ofChristians, apparently without what we would today recognize as anycriminal offense (Acts 8:3). Peter was imprisoned by Herod forpolitical gain (Acts 12:4). Paul and Silas were imprisoned fordisturbing the peace of Philippi (Acts 16:23).

Imprisonmentof Prophets

Aspecial case of political incarceration is the imprisonment ofprophets. From the point of view of the biblical writers, prophetswere imprisoned for speaking the truth to a powerful person who didnot want to hear it. From the point of view of those in power,imprisoning dissenters was an important way of suppressing opinionsthat could undermine the regime. In some cases, the imprisonment ofdissenters or troublemakers was a prelude to execution (John theBaptist and Jesus). The practice of imprisonment instead of immediateexecution may reflect the ambivalent attitude of rulers towardcontroversial prophets: they could not be allowed to move aboutfreely in society, but they had some status or right as prophet thatprevented their execution. In some cases, prophets managed toconfront a king without being punished, suggesting that there was acertain level of tolerance for them even when they were notsupportive of royal power, a tolerance that might have contributed tothe use of imprisonment instead of execution.

Ahabimprisoned Micaiah son of Imlah after he delivered an unfavorableoracle (1Kings 22:27). Similarly, Asa imprisoned Hanani theseer (2Chron. 16:10). These kings may have hoped that suchtreatment would coerce better news in the future. Jeremiah (Jer.37:15) and John the Baptist (Mark 6:17) were also imprisoned fordelivering unwelcome messages to those in power.

TheologicalSignificance

Inboth Testaments, release from prison is a symbol of God’ssalvation. The theme is prominent in the psalms, as in Ps. 146:7:“The Lord sets prisoners free” (see also Pss. 68:6;107:10; 142:7). In Acts 12:7 Peter is freed from prison by a divinelysent messenger. Paul wrote a number of letters from prison andidentified himself as a prisoner of Christ (Eph. 3:1; Col. 4:10;2Tim. 1:8; Philem. 1). Some texts refer in mythological termsto a prison that confines spirits or Satan (1Pet. 3:19; Rev.20:7).

The rendering of sexual services for payment. The biblicalreferences to prostitution are perhaps best organized under threeheadings: common or secular prostitution, cultic or sacredprostitution, and prostitution as metaphor.

Commonor Secular Prostitution

Thistype of prostitution is referred to in the OT by the Hebrew wordzonah and its derivatives (though some argue that on occasion theword might refer to sexual infidelityin general) and in the NT by the Greek term p*rnē. Among thewell-known prostitutes in the Bible are Rahab (Josh. 2:1–21),Jephthah’s mother (Judg. 11:1), Delilah (Judg. 16:1), and thetwo women in Solomon’s court (1Kings 3:16–28).(Although traditionoften identifies Mary Magdalene as a prostitute, she is not referredto this way in the Bible.)

Althoughthere is no explicit, absolute prohibition of prostitution in thepentateuchal laws, there are major restrictions. No father shouldcause or allow his daughter to become a prostitute (Lev. 19:29).Priests were not permitted to marry prostitutes (Lev. 21:7, 14),though this seems to imply a less stringent standard for the generalpopulace. A priest’s daughter who became a prostitute was to beburned in the fire (Lev. 21:9), but no such statement is made forIsraelites in general. Earnings from prostitution could not be usedfor payment of vows (Deut. 23:18).

Whileprostitution was not absolutely banned, it was the object of severedisapproval and contempt in Israelite society (Gen. 34:31; Judg.11:1–2). The book of Proverbs sternly warns young men againstturning to prostitutes (Prov. 6:26; 7:10; 23:27; 29:3), but thesewarnings also give evidence that prostitution, however contemptible,was tolerated in some measure. This attitude toward prostitutionaccords with that in the larger ancient Near Eastern context, thoughlaw codes from other Mesopotamian civilizations restricted andregulated prostitution rather than banning it outright. In the NT,Paul particularly refers to the spiritual problem involved in asexual relationship with prostitutes (1Cor. 6:15–16).Strikingly, however, Jesus includes repentant prostitutes among thecitizens of the kingdom of God (Matt. 21:31–32).

Sacredor Cultic Prostitution

TheNIV in several places has the term “shrine prostitute”(Gen. 38:21–22; Deut. 23:17; 1Kings 14:24; 15:12; 22:46;2Kings 23:7; Hos. 4:14). This is a translation of the Hebrewwords qadesh (masc.) and qedeshah (fem.), which come from the wordqadosh, which means “holy.” Traditionally, this has beenunderstood to refer to male and female prostitutes who performedtheir services in connection with a temple or shrine. The paymentswent into the temple treasuries, and the sexual acts were intended tomotivate the gods and goddesses to imitate them, assuring in turn thefertility of the land and fruitful crops. This was understood asbeing in accord with the practices of ancient Eastern fertilitycults. In recent scholarship, this traditional understanding has beenchallenged on two points. First, a number of scholars have foundlittle or no evidence that prostitution in the service of the templewas envisioned as stimulating similar activity among the gods,whether in Israel or in the larger Near Eastern world. Second, whileqedeshah certainly refers to a female prostitute in the service ofthe temple, it is less certain that qadesh refers to a maleprostitute; it may simply refer to male cultic personnel with noreference to sexual activity. Whatever the outcome of the discussion,the pentateuchal laws absolutely prohibit prostitution in connectionwith the temple or a shrine. Deuteronomy 23:17–18 seems toindicate that one of the motivations for women to offer sexual favorsin the service of the temple was to pay off a vow, but clearly itcondemns the practice.

Prostitutionas Metaphor

Alreadyin the pentateuchal legal texts, the sin of forsaking Yahweh, the Godof Israel, to serve and worship other gods was analogized toprostitution (Exod. 34:15; Lev. 17:7; 20:5–6; Num. 15:39; Deut.31:16). But the analogy becomes especially pronounced in the books ofthe prophets, which contain over half of the OT references toprostitution. Speaking through Jeremiah, God says to Israel, “Underevery spreading tree you lay down as a prostitute (Jer. 2:20). Inidolatry, Israel does not even “blush with shame” butinstead has the “brazen look of a prostitute” (Jer.3:1–3). Ezekiel portrays Israel and Judah as prostitutes who“lavished” their favors on any gods who passed by (Ezek.16:15). Indeed, God complains that Israel acted even worse than aprostitute, for “you scorned payment.... Allprostitutes receive gifts, but you give gifts to all your lovers”(Ezek. 16:31–34). Hosea, who was commanded by God to marry anadulterous woman in an extravagant act of love, mirroring God’sown love for the Israelites, buys and redeems his wife from herprostitution (Hos. 3:1–5). At times, other nations are alsometaphorically identified as prostitutes, such as Tyre (Isa.23:15–17), Nineveh (Nah. 3:4), and Babylon (Rev. 17:1, 15–16;19:2).

Many examples of metal razors with sharp cutting blades forthe removal of hair have survived from ancient Israel. Because of thesharpness of the blade, the razor was an appropriate metaphor for thedestructive power of the tongue (Ps. 52:2).

Razorsare most commonly referred to in the Bible in the terms of theNazirite vow (Num. 6:5), which separated a person as holy to God. Oneway in which that holiness was symbolized was the refusal to allow arazor to come near the hair of one’s head. Following thecompletion of the vow, the head could once again be shaved (Num.6:18). Samson was born under a Nazirite vow (Judg. 13:5) and enjoyedgreat strength as long as he kept the vow. When Delilah causedSamson’s head to be shaved, the vow was broken, and God’spresence left him (Judg. 16:19–20).

Inother circ*mstances, shaving was a necessary part of the cleanlinessrituals of the Israelite community (Lev. 14:8–9), althoughpriests were required not to shave (21:5). The Assyrian king and hisarmy are described as a razor that will shave the people of Israel(Isa. 7:20). The image indicates the cleansing of the people throughthe experience of defeat and exile.

The last judge of Israel whose story is found in the book ofJudges (the story of Eli’s and Samuel’s judgeship isfound in 1Samuel). The period of judges was a time of spiritualconfusion, moral depravity, and political fragmentation. Thesituation became increasingly worse as time wore on in Judges, andthe time of Samson was the worst of all. Samson did nothing except tosatisfy his own desires and lusts. He did not care about God, hisfamily, or his nation. Even so, God used him to deliver Israel inspite of his sin.

Samson’smother had been childless. An angel announced that she would have achild, but she must consecrate him as a Nazirite, a special holystatus. Numbers 6:1–21 describes the rules by which such aperson must live, including not drinking wine, cutting one’shair, or coming into contact with anything that was dead. (See alsoNazirite.)

WhenSamson grew up, he did not seem particularly interested in observingNazirite requirements or even acting like a good Israelite. Againsthis parents’ wishes, he even married a Philistine woman (Judg.14). On the way to the wedding, he scooped honey out of the carcassof a dead lion, thus breaking his Nazirite vow. He also came up witha riddle and bet his Philistine groomsmen that they could not solveit. When they did (because they forced his wife to reveal the answerto them), he killed thirty Philistines in order to steal theirclothes to pay off the bet. This story sets a pattern for thefollowing stories of Samson pursuing his own desires and, whenfrustrated, killing Philistines or destroying their property. Samsonwas doing this for his own ends; God was using it to weaken thePhilistines.

Theclimactic story is more of the same. Samson took up with anotherPhilistine woman, Delilah. She pestered him to reveal the secret ofhis great strength. At first, he misled her twice by saying that hisstrength would be diminished if he was bound by “seven freshbowstrings” (Judg. 16:7) or if she wove the seven braids of hishair (16:13–14), both of which she did, to no effect. Finally,he gave into her nagging and told her his secret. Delilah then cutoff his hair, rendering him powerless. After Samson was takencaptive, he was put on display in the Philistine temple. He prayedfor the strength to bring the temple down on the heads of thePhilistines, and God granted it. “Thus he killed many more whenhe died than while he lived” (16:30). But even this act wasdone not for theglory of God, but rather to “get revengeon the Philistines for my two eyes” (16:28), which thePhilistines had gouged out. Even so, the book of Hebrews points toSamson as an example of faith, perhaps referring not to his personalfaith, but to the fact that God used him to further his purposes ofsalvation (Heb. 11:32).

Many examples of metal razors with sharp cutting blades forthe removal of hair have survived from ancient Israel. Because of thesharpness of the blade, the razor was an appropriate metaphor for thedestructive power of the tongue (Ps. 52:2).

Razorsare most commonly referred to in the Bible in the terms of theNazirite vow (Num. 6:5), which separated a person as holy to God. Oneway in which that holiness was symbolized was the refusal to allow arazor to come near the hair of one’s head. Following thecompletion of the vow, the head could once again be shaved (Num.6:18). Samson was born under a Nazirite vow (Judg. 13:5) and enjoyedgreat strength as long as he kept the vow. When Delilah causedSamson’s head to be shaved, the vow was broken, and God’spresence left him (Judg. 16:19–20).

Inother circ*mstances, shaving was a necessary part of the cleanlinessrituals of the Israelite community (Lev. 14:8–9), althoughpriests were required not to shave (21:5). The Assyrian king and hisarmy are described as a razor that will shave the people of Israel(Isa. 7:20). The image indicates the cleansing of the people throughthe experience of defeat and exile.

Spinning (forming fibers into thread or yarn) and weaving(forming yarn into textiles) were the basic economic activities ofwomen throughout the ancient world (see Exod. 35:25–26). Thisis reflected in the Bible in Prov. 31:10–31, where the “wifeof noble character” is depicted as a proficient producer offine textiles. The process is portrayed in some detail, including thegathering of raw materials (31:13), the skillful making of yarn withdistaff and spindle (31:19), the crafting of garments and upholstery(31:22, 24), and the selling of the same (31:24). As is clear fromthis passage, textile production was a domestic activity, takingplace not in specialized factories but in any home where sufficientlabor was available. The Hebrew word for “weaver” occursas a masculine participle, suggesting the participation of men in thecraft (Exod. 35:35; Isa. 38:12).

Inbiblical Israel, fabric was made either from flax (a plant fiberyielding linen fabric) or wool (sheep or goat). In Isa. 19:9 theproduction of fine linen is particularly associated with Egypt. Themost abundant evidence of spinning and weaving to survive in thearchaeological record comes in the form of stone or clay loom weightsand spindle whorls. Less frequently, we find fragments of the woodenparts of the loom (such as the heddle rod or beam [see 1Sam.17:7]), bone or ivory tools, spinning bowls, and in some cases actualtextile and cordage fragments. A loom is a wooden framework on whichfabric is woven. In biblical lands, both vertical (against a wall)and horizontal (parallel with the ground) looms were used. Theubiquity of these implements in excavations of domestic sites atteststhe universality of textile production as a home craft in thebiblical world. Samson tricks Delilah into weaving his hair into aloom and tightening it with a pin (Judg. 16:13). Again, this storyillustrates the fact that the typical home contained a loom.

Severalancient cultures had a patron deity of spinning and weaving, usuallya female goddess: the Mesopotamian Uttu, the Egyptian Tait, andAthena in the Greek world. There are indications that Asherah was thegoddess of spinning and weaving in West Semitic culture, whichincludes Israel and its neighbors. Evidence for spinning and weavinghas been discovered at a tenth-century BC cultic site at Ta’anachin central Israel (see 2Kings 23:7).

Metaphorically,a spider spins its web (Isa. 59:5). Jesus reverses the analogy ofspinning and weaving to the natural world by stating that the liliesof the field “do not labor or spin” and yet aremagnificently clothed in natural beauty, exceeding even theartificial splendor of Solomon (Matt. 6:28; Luke 12:27).

Spinning (forming fibers into thread or yarn) and weaving(forming yarn into textiles) were the basic economic activities ofwomen throughout the ancient world (see Exod. 35:25–26). Thisis reflected in the Bible in Prov. 31:10–31, where the “wifeof noble character” is depicted as a proficient producer offine textiles. The process is portrayed in some detail, including thegathering of raw materials (31:13), the skillful making of yarn withdistaff and spindle (31:19), the crafting of garments and upholstery(31:22, 24), and the selling of the same (31:24). As is clear fromthis passage, textile production was a domestic activity, takingplace not in specialized factories but in any home where sufficientlabor was available. The Hebrew word for “weaver” occursas a masculine participle, suggesting the participation of men in thecraft (Exod. 35:35; Isa. 38:12).

Inbiblical Israel, fabric was made either from flax (a plant fiberyielding linen fabric) or wool (sheep or goat). In Isa. 19:9 theproduction of fine linen is particularly associated with Egypt. Themost abundant evidence of spinning and weaving to survive in thearchaeological record comes in the form of stone or clay loom weightsand spindle whorls. Less frequently, we find fragments of the woodenparts of the loom (such as the heddle rod or beam [see 1Sam.17:7]), bone or ivory tools, spinning bowls, and in some cases actualtextile and cordage fragments. A loom is a wooden framework on whichfabric is woven. In biblical lands, both vertical (against a wall)and horizontal (parallel with the ground) looms were used. Theubiquity of these implements in excavations of domestic sites atteststhe universality of textile production as a home craft in thebiblical world. Samson tricks Delilah into weaving his hair into aloom and tightening it with a pin (Judg. 16:13). Again, this storyillustrates the fact that the typical home contained a loom.

Severalancient cultures had a patron deity of spinning and weaving, usuallya female goddess: the Mesopotamian Uttu, the Egyptian Tait, andAthena in the Greek world. There are indications that Asherah was thegoddess of spinning and weaving in West Semitic culture, whichincludes Israel and its neighbors. Evidence for spinning and weavinghas been discovered at a tenth-century BC cultic site at Ta’anachin central Israel (see 2Kings 23:7).

Metaphorically,a spider spins its web (Isa. 59:5). Jesus reverses the analogy ofspinning and weaving to the natural world by stating that the liliesof the field “do not labor or spin” and yet aremagnificently clothed in natural beauty, exceeding even theartificial splendor of Solomon (Matt. 6:28; Luke 12:27).

The biblical site of Gaza is located at Tell Harube/Tell’Azza, which is beneath the modern Palestinian city of Gaza. Itis strategically situated in southern Palestine near the Egyptianborder and is approximately three miles from the Mediterranean Sea.Initial excavations were led by W.J. Phythian-Adams in 1922under the auspices of the Palestine Exploration Fund. Additionalexcavations were directed by Asher Ovadiah in 1967 and 1976.

Inthe Late Bronze Age (1550–1200 BC), Gaza was under the controlof Egypt. It is first mentioned in the annals of ThutmoseIII asthe provincial capital of Canaan, and it functioned as an Egyptianadministrative center in the Amarna and Taanach letters. At thebeginning of the Iron Age (1200 BC), the Sea Peoples (especially thePhilistines) took control of this coastal region. This scenario isreflected in Deut. 2:23, which states that the Caphtorites (i.e., thePhilistines) displaced the Avvites. Joshua 11:22 also states thatafter the Israelite conquest, the giant Anakim only remained in Gaza,Gath, and Ashdod (they were most likely assimilated into Philistineculture, perhaps as mercenaries). These three cities, along withEkron and Ashkelon, comprise the Philistine Pentapolis (Josh. 13:3;1Sam. 6:17–18). The Pentapolis remained unconquered atthe end of Joshua’s life (Josh. 13:3), even though Ekron,Ashdod, and Gaza were included in Judah’s allotment (15:45–47).The Judahites took brief control of Gaza, Ashkelon, and Ekron, whichthey were unable to maintain due to the Philistines’ employmentof “iron chariots” on the plains (Judg. 1:18–19).During the period of the judges, Gaza is prominently featured in theexploits of Samson. The city is described as having a gate and amultistoried temple (Judg. 16:1–3, 26). After David’sconquests of the Philistines, King Solomon is said to have dominionover a vast region including Gaza (1Kings 4:24). In the secondhalf of the eighth century BC, Gaza became an Assyrian vassal (underTiglath-pileserIII). King Hezekiah also briefly subdued theregion (2Kings 18:8), but Gaza remained an Assyrian vassaluntil the end of the seventh century, when the city was brieflyoccupied by Pharaoh NechoII and then fell to Nebuchadnezzar(see Jer. 47:1–2, 5). Gaza is mentioned in a number ofprophetic oracles against Philistia (Jer. 25:20; 47:1; Amos 1:6–7;Zeph. 2:4; Zech. 9:5). It appears only one time in the NT, whenPhilip is traveling toward Gaza and encounters the Ethiopian eunuch(Acts 8:26).

In the ancient Near East the type of cooking and heating utilized within a household depended upon the family’s socioeconomic status and lifestyle. A nomadic or seminomadic pastoral lifestyle demanded portability; permanent ovens or heating installations would have been impractical. A stable urban lifestyle made possible the construction of more complex heating and cooking equipment.

Cooking within the Seminomadic Lifestyle

Seminomadic groups, such as Abraham and his family or the Israelites before the settlement of Canaan, probably used an open fire or fire pit. A campfire was kindled on top of the ground or on flat stones. An open fire of this nature could also be ringed with a small stone circle. Shallow holes or fire pits were also dug into the ground near the front of a tent or outside, in the encampment. Since tents did not have chimneys, the smoke from a fire would escape through the door. The seasonal climate dictated whether a fire was kindled inside or outside the tent.

Fires were ignited with twigs or kindling by friction or sparks (Isa. 50:11; 64:2; 2 Macc. 10:3), a skill learned during the early Stone Age. Once lit, the burning embers of the fire could be moved around, kept smoldering, and fanned into a blaze with fresh fuel (Isa. 30:14; cf. Lev. 6:13). Abraham carried some type of an ember or fire with him when he went to sacrifice Isaac (Gen. 22:6). The “smoking firepot with a blazing torch” that symbolized God’s presence before Abraham may refer to a portable device for transporting fire (15:17).

Fuel for fire was gathered from the materials most readily available to seminomadic groups. Potential fuels included thorns and briers (Isa. 10:17), dried grass (Matt. 6:30; Luke 12:28), charcoal (John 18:18 NRSV), twigs or sticks (Isa. 64:2), wood (Gen. 22:6), and dried animal dung (Ezek. 4:15). Fire pits provided some means for keeping a family warm, as well as being used for cooking.

Cooking within the Urban Lifestyle

The sedentary urban lifestyle of the monarchial period provided the opportunity to construct permanent cooking and heating installations. In the four-room Israelite house, cooking normally was done in a fire pit or clay oven in the courtyard of the home. The baking oven ordinarily was located outside, but archaeologists have found cooking utensils and ovens in the central room of the house. This indoor oven also served as a means of heat during the colder wet season. The family most likely utilized the courtyard oven during the hotter dry season.

Egyptian and Mesopotamian reliefs provide illustrations of the structure of ancient ovens. Archaeologists have uncovered scores of examples of different types and sizes all across the ancient Near East. Small domestic ovens (Exod. 8:3) were made of clay in two basic forms. The first had an open top and was cylindrical in shape. It ranged from two to three feet in height and was about two feet in diameter. The second, about the same size, was more egg-shaped, with small openings at the base and in the top.

Some ovens were covered with a plastered layer of potsherds on the outside to improve insulation. They could be embedded in the ground or raised above it. The oven floor was lined with pebbles, and the fire was built upon it. Commercial ovens were larger and were concentrated in specific areas of a city (Neh. 3:11; 12:38).

Ovens and fire pits were used for cooking and heating in the home. Other hearths or heating ovens were employed to warm larger buildings or to perform specific tasks not related to food preparation. A large oval hearth was discovered in the central room of an Iron Age II house at Shechem. Jeremiah 36:22–23 speaks about a “firepot” or hearth used by Jehoiakim to warm his winter apartment. This hearth may have been a raised copper or bronze basin on a three-legged stand. A “fire basin” (NIV: “firepot”) is also mentioned in Zech. 12:6.

Cooking Utensils

Many types of pottery utensils, which were undoubtedly associated with cooking and eating, have been discovered in archaeological excavations in the ancient Near East. Although rare, metal and stone implements have also been found. One area in the tent or the home would be employed as a “kitchen.” A kitchen in the palace of Ramesses III is depicted on an Egyptian wall, and Ezekiel mentions the kitchens located in the new temple (46:24). Cooking and serving vessels included platters, bowls, chalices, jugs, juglets, and cooking pots. Storage vessels and grain pits also were needed to contain spices, oils, grains, and other foodstuffs.

Larger bowls designed specifically for cooking were in common use during the Bronze and Iron Ages. These “cooking pots” often were placed directly into the fire or on hot coals and were used to boil meat or make soups and other similar types of food. Iron Age II cooking pots from Palestine generally bore the trademark of the potter. Cooking pots had a short life and were replaced often. Because the style of these types of pots changed systematically over time, they have become very important in helping archaeologists date the particular level or stratum of a tell in which they were found.

The Cooking of Food

The type of food eaten by families also depended on their socioeconomic status and lifestyle. Food staples included milk products, wine, bread, and occasionally meat. Richer families could afford vegetables, fruits, dates, figs, and other less common foods. All types of households ate bread.

Grains. The most common grains used in bread making were wheat, barley, and spelt (Isa. 28:25). Wheat grew wild in Palestine, and there is evidence that seminomadic people stayed in one place long enough to cultivate small plots of grain. Grain could also be acquired in trade for other agricultural products such as goat’s milk or wool. Grain was winnowed to separate the chaff from the kernels (Matt. 3:12; Luke 3:17). Roasted grain was grain that had been “popped” in the fire instead of being milled (1 Sam. 25:18).

After being winnowed, wheat and other grains were ground initially in a hand mill. Hand mills, or querns, were of two types. The first was a simple device of two stones. The base, or “saddle,” was a flat, elongated stone that became curved through the backward and forward motion of the upper stone. The upper, or “rider,” stone was flat on one side and curved on the top to allow the user to grip the stone with both hands. The grain was placed on the saddle, and the rider stone was run repeatedly over it to grind it. This was considered menial work (Lam. 5:13). This type of grinding may have been assigned to the blinded Samson (Judg. 16:21).

The second, later type of hand mill consisted of two stone disks approximately twelve inches in diameter. The lower stone, or base, had an upright wooden stake at the center. A hole in the upper stone allowed it to fit over the base, and a handle on the upper stone was used to rotate it against the lower stone (Matt. 24:41). Grain was fed through the central hole, and the milled flour exited along the sides. The millstone mentioned in Matt. 18:6; Mark 9:42; Luke 17:2 is a larger example of this type.

Milling grain was a necessary task of the household (Jer. 25:10). Course grain was further milled into fine flour with a mortar and pestle. Course grain could be used to make boiled porridge or gruel. Finely ground flour was used in sacrificial offerings (Exod. 29:40; Lev. 2:4).

The flour was mixed with water and kneaded (Gen. 18:6; 1 Sam. 28:24; 2 Sam. 13:8; Jer. 7:18), small amounts of leaven and salt were added, and then the bread was baked. Three methods of baking bread are mentioned in the OT: over hot coals (1 Kings 19:6; Isa. 44:19), on a griddle (Lev. 7:9; cf. Ezek. 4:3), and in an oven (Lev. 26:26). Leaven was withheld from the dough if the bread was to be made and eaten in haste (Exod. 12:39; Judg. 6:19; 1 Sam. 28:24). Griddle “cakes” were also made in this fashion (Hos. 7:8; cf. Ezek. 4:12).

Bread often was baked in different shapes. Thin bread was used to scoop food from a common pot (Matt. 26:23). Other breads were formed into loaves (John 6:9). In one man’s dream a round loaf of barley bread is described as rolling down a hill and striking and overturning a tent (Judg. 7:13). Both men and women baked bread (Gen. 19:3; 1 Sam. 28:24), and priests baked bread for ritual usage (Lev. 24:5). A king could afford to have men and women as professional bakers (Gen. 40:1; 1 Sam. 8:13). Professional bakers may also have served the larger urban population (Neh. 3:11; Jer. 37:21; Hos. 7:4) in Jerusalem.

Fruits and vegetables. After settling in Canaan, the Israelites made some additions to their diet. Foodstuffs grown in cultivated gardens were now available. These included foods such as cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, and garlic (Num. 11:5). Some of these vegetables were added to stews; others were eaten uncooked. Vegetable, bean, and lentil soups were prepared in large cooking pots placed directly on the fire. Esau particularly enjoyed lentil soup (Gen. 25:30). Herbs and spices (mint, dill, and cumin) were now accessible as well (Isa. 28:25, 27; Matt. 23:23). Salt came from the Dead Sea.

Fruits too were grown and harvested. Of particular interest was the olive. Olives were crushed in a press to render oil. Olive oil was used in cooking and baking. It was mixed with fine flour to make bread (1 Kings 17:12; Ezek. 16:13; cf. Num. 11:8).

Meat. When a guest arrived or when a special occasion called for it, meat was added to the stew. Meat often was boiled (2 Kings 4:38; Ezek. 24:3–5). Spices were also added (Ezek. 24:10). Since the meat was cut up to boil, this method had the advantage of avoiding the problem of ensuring that the blood was properly drained out of an animal before it could be roasted (Lev. 17:10–11). Milk could be used in the stew; however, cooking a kid in its mother’s milk was prohibited (Exod. 23:19; 34:26; Deut. 14:21).

Meat was roasted over an open fire on a spit. Meat was available from flocks and through hunting. Abraham served his guests veal (Gen. 18:7); Gideon and his guests ate goat meat (Judg. 6:19); Samuel appears to have served Saul a mutton leg (1 Sam. 9:24). Contrary to ritual regulations, Hophni and Phinehas demanded meat for roasting (1 Sam. 2:13–15). Meat certainly was roasted as a sacrifice on the altar of the tabernacle and the temple. It also normally was roasted on feast days such as Passover (Exod. 12:8–9).

Fish were counted among the foods given to Noah and his sons after the flood (Gen. 9:2–3). The Israelites ate fish in Egypt (Num. 11:15), and fishermen plied their trade along the Nile (Isa. 19:8). Fishermen could hook, spear, or net fish (Job 41:1, 7; Eccles. 9:12; Ezek. 29:4; 47:10). In Israel, fish were taken from the Sea of Galilee or the Mediterranean. Jerusalem had a “Fish Gate,” where fish were sold (2 Chron. 33:14; Neh. 3:3; 12:39; Zeph. 1:10). The Phoenicians most likely exported several varieties of edible fish to Israel. Fish with fins and scales were clean, but those without fins or scales were not (Lev. 11:9–12). In Nehemiah’s day Phoenicians were selling fish to the inhabitants of Jerusalem even on the Sabbath (Neh. 13:16).

In NT times, the Phoenicians continued to import much of the fish brought into Palestine. The ministry of Jesus revolved around the smaller fishing industry on the Sea of Galilee. Jesus called several fishermen to follow him as disciples (Matt. 4:18). On a number of occasions Jesus helped his disciples to ply their trade by directing them where to cast their nets (John 21:6, 11). Fish were caught in dragnets (John 21:8) and hand nets (Matt. 4:18). After his resurrection Jesus ate fish with his disciples in Jerusalem and on the Sea of Galilee (Luke 24:42; John 21:9).

Fish became a staple of the common people (Matt. 14:17; 15:34). The fish used to feed the multitudes probably were salted. Fish normally were grilled over an open fire (John 21:9).

In the ancient Near East the type of cooking and heating utilized within a household depended upon the family’s socioeconomic status and lifestyle. A nomadic or seminomadic pastoral lifestyle demanded portability; permanent ovens or heating installations would have been impractical. A stable urban lifestyle made possible the construction of more complex heating and cooking equipment.

Cooking within the Seminomadic Lifestyle

Seminomadic groups, such as Abraham and his family or the Israelites before the settlement of Canaan, probably used an open fire or fire pit. A campfire was kindled on top of the ground or on flat stones. An open fire of this nature could also be ringed with a small stone circle. Shallow holes or fire pits were also dug into the ground near the front of a tent or outside, in the encampment. Since tents did not have chimneys, the smoke from a fire would escape through the door. The seasonal climate dictated whether a fire was kindled inside or outside the tent.

Fires were ignited with twigs or kindling by friction or sparks (Isa. 50:11; 64:2; 2 Macc. 10:3), a skill learned during the early Stone Age. Once lit, the burning embers of the fire could be moved around, kept smoldering, and fanned into a blaze with fresh fuel (Isa. 30:14; cf. Lev. 6:13). Abraham carried some type of an ember or fire with him when he went to sacrifice Isaac (Gen. 22:6). The “smoking firepot with a blazing torch” that symbolized God’s presence before Abraham may refer to a portable device for transporting fire (15:17).

Fuel for fire was gathered from the materials most readily available to seminomadic groups. Potential fuels included thorns and briers (Isa. 10:17), dried grass (Matt. 6:30; Luke 12:28), charcoal (John 18:18 NRSV), twigs or sticks (Isa. 64:2), wood (Gen. 22:6), and dried animal dung (Ezek. 4:15). Fire pits provided some means for keeping a family warm, as well as being used for cooking.

Cooking within the Urban Lifestyle

The sedentary urban lifestyle of the monarchial period provided the opportunity to construct permanent cooking and heating installations. In the four-room Israelite house, cooking normally was done in a fire pit or clay oven in the courtyard of the home. The baking oven ordinarily was located outside, but archaeologists have found cooking utensils and ovens in the central room of the house. This indoor oven also served as a means of heat during the colder wet season. The family most likely utilized the courtyard oven during the hotter dry season.

Egyptian and Mesopotamian reliefs provide illustrations of the structure of ancient ovens. Archaeologists have uncovered scores of examples of different types and sizes all across the ancient Near East. Small domestic ovens (Exod. 8:3) were made of clay in two basic forms. The first had an open top and was cylindrical in shape. It ranged from two to three feet in height and was about two feet in diameter. The second, about the same size, was more egg-shaped, with small openings at the base and in the top.

Some ovens were covered with a plastered layer of potsherds on the outside to improve insulation. They could be embedded in the ground or raised above it. The oven floor was lined with pebbles, and the fire was built upon it. Commercial ovens were larger and were concentrated in specific areas of a city (Neh. 3:11; 12:38).

Ovens and fire pits were used for cooking and heating in the home. Other hearths or heating ovens were employed to warm larger buildings or to perform specific tasks not related to food preparation. A large oval hearth was discovered in the central room of an Iron Age II house at Shechem. Jeremiah 36:22–23 speaks about a “firepot” or hearth used by Jehoiakim to warm his winter apartment. This hearth may have been a raised copper or bronze basin on a three-legged stand. A “fire basin” (NIV: “firepot”) is also mentioned in Zech. 12:6.

Cooking Utensils

Many types of pottery utensils, which were undoubtedly associated with cooking and eating, have been discovered in archaeological excavations in the ancient Near East. Although rare, metal and stone implements have also been found. One area in the tent or the home would be employed as a “kitchen.” A kitchen in the palace of Ramesses III is depicted on an Egyptian wall, and Ezekiel mentions the kitchens located in the new temple (46:24). Cooking and serving vessels included platters, bowls, chalices, jugs, juglets, and cooking pots. Storage vessels and grain pits also were needed to contain spices, oils, grains, and other foodstuffs.

Larger bowls designed specifically for cooking were in common use during the Bronze and Iron Ages. These “cooking pots” often were placed directly into the fire or on hot coals and were used to boil meat or make soups and other similar types of food. Iron Age II cooking pots from Palestine generally bore the trademark of the potter. Cooking pots had a short life and were replaced often. Because the style of these types of pots changed systematically over time, they have become very important in helping archaeologists date the particular level or stratum of a tell in which they were found.

The Cooking of Food

The type of food eaten by families also depended on their socioeconomic status and lifestyle. Food staples included milk products, wine, bread, and occasionally meat. Richer families could afford vegetables, fruits, dates, figs, and other less common foods. All types of households ate bread.

Grains. The most common grains used in bread making were wheat, barley, and spelt (Isa. 28:25). Wheat grew wild in Palestine, and there is evidence that seminomadic people stayed in one place long enough to cultivate small plots of grain. Grain could also be acquired in trade for other agricultural products such as goat’s milk or wool. Grain was winnowed to separate the chaff from the kernels (Matt. 3:12; Luke 3:17). Roasted grain was grain that had been “popped” in the fire instead of being milled (1 Sam. 25:18).

After being winnowed, wheat and other grains were ground initially in a hand mill. Hand mills, or querns, were of two types. The first was a simple device of two stones. The base, or “saddle,” was a flat, elongated stone that became curved through the backward and forward motion of the upper stone. The upper, or “rider,” stone was flat on one side and curved on the top to allow the user to grip the stone with both hands. The grain was placed on the saddle, and the rider stone was run repeatedly over it to grind it. This was considered menial work (Lam. 5:13). This type of grinding may have been assigned to the blinded Samson (Judg. 16:21).

The second, later type of hand mill consisted of two stone disks approximately twelve inches in diameter. The lower stone, or base, had an upright wooden stake at the center. A hole in the upper stone allowed it to fit over the base, and a handle on the upper stone was used to rotate it against the lower stone (Matt. 24:41). Grain was fed through the central hole, and the milled flour exited along the sides. The millstone mentioned in Matt. 18:6; Mark 9:42; Luke 17:2 is a larger example of this type.

Milling grain was a necessary task of the household (Jer. 25:10). Course grain was further milled into fine flour with a mortar and pestle. Course grain could be used to make boiled porridge or gruel. Finely ground flour was used in sacrificial offerings (Exod. 29:40; Lev. 2:4).

The flour was mixed with water and kneaded (Gen. 18:6; 1 Sam. 28:24; 2 Sam. 13:8; Jer. 7:18), small amounts of leaven and salt were added, and then the bread was baked. Three methods of baking bread are mentioned in the OT: over hot coals (1 Kings 19:6; Isa. 44:19), on a griddle (Lev. 7:9; cf. Ezek. 4:3), and in an oven (Lev. 26:26). Leaven was withheld from the dough if the bread was to be made and eaten in haste (Exod. 12:39; Judg. 6:19; 1 Sam. 28:24). Griddle “cakes” were also made in this fashion (Hos. 7:8; cf. Ezek. 4:12).

Bread often was baked in different shapes. Thin bread was used to scoop food from a common pot (Matt. 26:23). Other breads were formed into loaves (John 6:9). In one man’s dream a round loaf of barley bread is described as rolling down a hill and striking and overturning a tent (Judg. 7:13). Both men and women baked bread (Gen. 19:3; 1 Sam. 28:24), and priests baked bread for ritual usage (Lev. 24:5). A king could afford to have men and women as professional bakers (Gen. 40:1; 1 Sam. 8:13). Professional bakers may also have served the larger urban population (Neh. 3:11; Jer. 37:21; Hos. 7:4) in Jerusalem.

Fruits and vegetables. After settling in Canaan, the Israelites made some additions to their diet. Foodstuffs grown in cultivated gardens were now available. These included foods such as cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, and garlic (Num. 11:5). Some of these vegetables were added to stews; others were eaten uncooked. Vegetable, bean, and lentil soups were prepared in large cooking pots placed directly on the fire. Esau particularly enjoyed lentil soup (Gen. 25:30). Herbs and spices (mint, dill, and cumin) were now accessible as well (Isa. 28:25, 27; Matt. 23:23). Salt came from the Dead Sea.

Fruits too were grown and harvested. Of particular interest was the olive. Olives were crushed in a press to render oil. Olive oil was used in cooking and baking. It was mixed with fine flour to make bread (1 Kings 17:12; Ezek. 16:13; cf. Num. 11:8).

Meat. When a guest arrived or when a special occasion called for it, meat was added to the stew. Meat often was boiled (2 Kings 4:38; Ezek. 24:3–5). Spices were also added (Ezek. 24:10). Since the meat was cut up to boil, this method had the advantage of avoiding the problem of ensuring that the blood was properly drained out of an animal before it could be roasted (Lev. 17:10–11). Milk could be used in the stew; however, cooking a kid in its mother’s milk was prohibited (Exod. 23:19; 34:26; Deut. 14:21).

Meat was roasted over an open fire on a spit. Meat was available from flocks and through hunting. Abraham served his guests veal (Gen. 18:7); Gideon and his guests ate goat meat (Judg. 6:19); Samuel appears to have served Saul a mutton leg (1 Sam. 9:24). Contrary to ritual regulations, Hophni and Phinehas demanded meat for roasting (1 Sam. 2:13–15). Meat certainly was roasted as a sacrifice on the altar of the tabernacle and the temple. It also normally was roasted on feast days such as Passover (Exod. 12:8–9).

Fish were counted among the foods given to Noah and his sons after the flood (Gen. 9:2–3). The Israelites ate fish in Egypt (Num. 11:15), and fishermen plied their trade along the Nile (Isa. 19:8). Fishermen could hook, spear, or net fish (Job 41:1, 7; Eccles. 9:12; Ezek. 29:4; 47:10). In Israel, fish were taken from the Sea of Galilee or the Mediterranean. Jerusalem had a “Fish Gate,” where fish were sold (2 Chron. 33:14; Neh. 3:3; 12:39; Zeph. 1:10). The Phoenicians most likely exported several varieties of edible fish to Israel. Fish with fins and scales were clean, but those without fins or scales were not (Lev. 11:9–12). In Nehemiah’s day Phoenicians were selling fish to the inhabitants of Jerusalem even on the Sabbath (Neh. 13:16).

In NT times, the Phoenicians continued to import much of the fish brought into Palestine. The ministry of Jesus revolved around the smaller fishing industry on the Sea of Galilee. Jesus called several fishermen to follow him as disciples (Matt. 4:18). On a number of occasions Jesus helped his disciples to ply their trade by directing them where to cast their nets (John 21:6, 11). Fish were caught in dragnets (John 21:8) and hand nets (Matt. 4:18). After his resurrection Jesus ate fish with his disciples in Jerusalem and on the Sea of Galilee (Luke 24:42; John 21:9).

Fish became a staple of the common people (Matt. 14:17; 15:34). The fish used to feed the multitudes probably were salted. Fish normally were grilled over an open fire (John 21:9).

In the ancient Near East the type of cooking and heating utilized within a household depended upon the family’s socioeconomic status and lifestyle. A nomadic or seminomadic pastoral lifestyle demanded portability; permanent ovens or heating installations would have been impractical. A stable urban lifestyle made possible the construction of more complex heating and cooking equipment.

Cooking within the Seminomadic Lifestyle

Seminomadic groups, such as Abraham and his family or the Israelites before the settlement of Canaan, probably used an open fire or fire pit. A campfire was kindled on top of the ground or on flat stones. An open fire of this nature could also be ringed with a small stone circle. Shallow holes or fire pits were also dug into the ground near the front of a tent or outside, in the encampment. Since tents did not have chimneys, the smoke from a fire would escape through the door. The seasonal climate dictated whether a fire was kindled inside or outside the tent.

Fires were ignited with twigs or kindling by friction or sparks (Isa. 50:11; 64:2; 2 Macc. 10:3), a skill learned during the early Stone Age. Once lit, the burning embers of the fire could be moved around, kept smoldering, and fanned into a blaze with fresh fuel (Isa. 30:14; cf. Lev. 6:13). Abraham carried some type of an ember or fire with him when he went to sacrifice Isaac (Gen. 22:6). The “smoking firepot with a blazing torch” that symbolized God’s presence before Abraham may refer to a portable device for transporting fire (15:17).

Fuel for fire was gathered from the materials most readily available to seminomadic groups. Potential fuels included thorns and briers (Isa. 10:17), dried grass (Matt. 6:30; Luke 12:28), charcoal (John 18:18 NRSV), twigs or sticks (Isa. 64:2), wood (Gen. 22:6), and dried animal dung (Ezek. 4:15). Fire pits provided some means for keeping a family warm, as well as being used for cooking.

Cooking within the Urban Lifestyle

The sedentary urban lifestyle of the monarchial period provided the opportunity to construct permanent cooking and heating installations. In the four-room Israelite house, cooking normally was done in a fire pit or clay oven in the courtyard of the home. The baking oven ordinarily was located outside, but archaeologists have found cooking utensils and ovens in the central room of the house. This indoor oven also served as a means of heat during the colder wet season. The family most likely utilized the courtyard oven during the hotter dry season.

Egyptian and Mesopotamian reliefs provide illustrations of the structure of ancient ovens. Archaeologists have uncovered scores of examples of different types and sizes all across the ancient Near East. Small domestic ovens (Exod. 8:3) were made of clay in two basic forms. The first had an open top and was cylindrical in shape. It ranged from two to three feet in height and was about two feet in diameter. The second, about the same size, was more egg-shaped, with small openings at the base and in the top.

Some ovens were covered with a plastered layer of potsherds on the outside to improve insulation. They could be embedded in the ground or raised above it. The oven floor was lined with pebbles, and the fire was built upon it. Commercial ovens were larger and were concentrated in specific areas of a city (Neh. 3:11; 12:38).

Ovens and fire pits were used for cooking and heating in the home. Other hearths or heating ovens were employed to warm larger buildings or to perform specific tasks not related to food preparation. A large oval hearth was discovered in the central room of an Iron Age II house at Shechem. Jeremiah 36:22–23 speaks about a “firepot” or hearth used by Jehoiakim to warm his winter apartment. This hearth may have been a raised copper or bronze basin on a three-legged stand. A “fire basin” (NIV: “firepot”) is also mentioned in Zech. 12:6.

Cooking Utensils

Many types of pottery utensils, which were undoubtedly associated with cooking and eating, have been discovered in archaeological excavations in the ancient Near East. Although rare, metal and stone implements have also been found. One area in the tent or the home would be employed as a “kitchen.” A kitchen in the palace of Ramesses III is depicted on an Egyptian wall, and Ezekiel mentions the kitchens located in the new temple (46:24). Cooking and serving vessels included platters, bowls, chalices, jugs, juglets, and cooking pots. Storage vessels and grain pits also were needed to contain spices, oils, grains, and other foodstuffs.

Larger bowls designed specifically for cooking were in common use during the Bronze and Iron Ages. These “cooking pots” often were placed directly into the fire or on hot coals and were used to boil meat or make soups and other similar types of food. Iron Age II cooking pots from Palestine generally bore the trademark of the potter. Cooking pots had a short life and were replaced often. Because the style of these types of pots changed systematically over time, they have become very important in helping archaeologists date the particular level or stratum of a tell in which they were found.

The Cooking of Food

The type of food eaten by families also depended on their socioeconomic status and lifestyle. Food staples included milk products, wine, bread, and occasionally meat. Richer families could afford vegetables, fruits, dates, figs, and other less common foods. All types of households ate bread.

Grains. The most common grains used in bread making were wheat, barley, and spelt (Isa. 28:25). Wheat grew wild in Palestine, and there is evidence that seminomadic people stayed in one place long enough to cultivate small plots of grain. Grain could also be acquired in trade for other agricultural products such as goat’s milk or wool. Grain was winnowed to separate the chaff from the kernels (Matt. 3:12; Luke 3:17). Roasted grain was grain that had been “popped” in the fire instead of being milled (1 Sam. 25:18).

After being winnowed, wheat and other grains were ground initially in a hand mill. Hand mills, or querns, were of two types. The first was a simple device of two stones. The base, or “saddle,” was a flat, elongated stone that became curved through the backward and forward motion of the upper stone. The upper, or “rider,” stone was flat on one side and curved on the top to allow the user to grip the stone with both hands. The grain was placed on the saddle, and the rider stone was run repeatedly over it to grind it. This was considered menial work (Lam. 5:13). This type of grinding may have been assigned to the blinded Samson (Judg. 16:21).

The second, later type of hand mill consisted of two stone disks approximately twelve inches in diameter. The lower stone, or base, had an upright wooden stake at the center. A hole in the upper stone allowed it to fit over the base, and a handle on the upper stone was used to rotate it against the lower stone (Matt. 24:41). Grain was fed through the central hole, and the milled flour exited along the sides. The millstone mentioned in Matt. 18:6; Mark 9:42; Luke 17:2 is a larger example of this type.

Milling grain was a necessary task of the household (Jer. 25:10). Course grain was further milled into fine flour with a mortar and pestle. Course grain could be used to make boiled porridge or gruel. Finely ground flour was used in sacrificial offerings (Exod. 29:40; Lev. 2:4).

The flour was mixed with water and kneaded (Gen. 18:6; 1 Sam. 28:24; 2 Sam. 13:8; Jer. 7:18), small amounts of leaven and salt were added, and then the bread was baked. Three methods of baking bread are mentioned in the OT: over hot coals (1 Kings 19:6; Isa. 44:19), on a griddle (Lev. 7:9; cf. Ezek. 4:3), and in an oven (Lev. 26:26). Leaven was withheld from the dough if the bread was to be made and eaten in haste (Exod. 12:39; Judg. 6:19; 1 Sam. 28:24). Griddle “cakes” were also made in this fashion (Hos. 7:8; cf. Ezek. 4:12).

Bread often was baked in different shapes. Thin bread was used to scoop food from a common pot (Matt. 26:23). Other breads were formed into loaves (John 6:9). In one man’s dream a round loaf of barley bread is described as rolling down a hill and striking and overturning a tent (Judg. 7:13). Both men and women baked bread (Gen. 19:3; 1 Sam. 28:24), and priests baked bread for ritual usage (Lev. 24:5). A king could afford to have men and women as professional bakers (Gen. 40:1; 1 Sam. 8:13). Professional bakers may also have served the larger urban population (Neh. 3:11; Jer. 37:21; Hos. 7:4) in Jerusalem.

Fruits and vegetables. After settling in Canaan, the Israelites made some additions to their diet. Foodstuffs grown in cultivated gardens were now available. These included foods such as cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, and garlic (Num. 11:5). Some of these vegetables were added to stews; others were eaten uncooked. Vegetable, bean, and lentil soups were prepared in large cooking pots placed directly on the fire. Esau particularly enjoyed lentil soup (Gen. 25:30). Herbs and spices (mint, dill, and cumin) were now accessible as well (Isa. 28:25, 27; Matt. 23:23). Salt came from the Dead Sea.

Fruits too were grown and harvested. Of particular interest was the olive. Olives were crushed in a press to render oil. Olive oil was used in cooking and baking. It was mixed with fine flour to make bread (1 Kings 17:12; Ezek. 16:13; cf. Num. 11:8).

Meat. When a guest arrived or when a special occasion called for it, meat was added to the stew. Meat often was boiled (2 Kings 4:38; Ezek. 24:3–5). Spices were also added (Ezek. 24:10). Since the meat was cut up to boil, this method had the advantage of avoiding the problem of ensuring that the blood was properly drained out of an animal before it could be roasted (Lev. 17:10–11). Milk could be used in the stew; however, cooking a kid in its mother’s milk was prohibited (Exod. 23:19; 34:26; Deut. 14:21).

Meat was roasted over an open fire on a spit. Meat was available from flocks and through hunting. Abraham served his guests veal (Gen. 18:7); Gideon and his guests ate goat meat (Judg. 6:19); Samuel appears to have served Saul a mutton leg (1 Sam. 9:24). Contrary to ritual regulations, Hophni and Phinehas demanded meat for roasting (1 Sam. 2:13–15). Meat certainly was roasted as a sacrifice on the altar of the tabernacle and the temple. It also normally was roasted on feast days such as Passover (Exod. 12:8–9).

Fish were counted among the foods given to Noah and his sons after the flood (Gen. 9:2–3). The Israelites ate fish in Egypt (Num. 11:15), and fishermen plied their trade along the Nile (Isa. 19:8). Fishermen could hook, spear, or net fish (Job 41:1, 7; Eccles. 9:12; Ezek. 29:4; 47:10). In Israel, fish were taken from the Sea of Galilee or the Mediterranean. Jerusalem had a “Fish Gate,” where fish were sold (2 Chron. 33:14; Neh. 3:3; 12:39; Zeph. 1:10). The Phoenicians most likely exported several varieties of edible fish to Israel. Fish with fins and scales were clean, but those without fins or scales were not (Lev. 11:9–12). In Nehemiah’s day Phoenicians were selling fish to the inhabitants of Jerusalem even on the Sabbath (Neh. 13:16).

In NT times, the Phoenicians continued to import much of the fish brought into Palestine. The ministry of Jesus revolved around the smaller fishing industry on the Sea of Galilee. Jesus called several fishermen to follow him as disciples (Matt. 4:18). On a number of occasions Jesus helped his disciples to ply their trade by directing them where to cast their nets (John 21:6, 11). Fish were caught in dragnets (John 21:8) and hand nets (Matt. 4:18). After his resurrection Jesus ate fish with his disciples in Jerusalem and on the Sea of Galilee (Luke 24:42; John 21:9).

Fish became a staple of the common people (Matt. 14:17; 15:34). The fish used to feed the multitudes probably were salted. Fish normally were grilled over an open fire (John 21:9).

In the ancient Near East the type of cooking and heating utilized within a household depended upon the family’s socioeconomic status and lifestyle. A nomadic or seminomadic pastoral lifestyle demanded portability; permanent ovens or heating installations would have been impractical. A stable urban lifestyle made possible the construction of more complex heating and cooking equipment.

Cooking within the Seminomadic Lifestyle

Seminomadic groups, such as Abraham and his family or the Israelites before the settlement of Canaan, probably used an open fire or fire pit. A campfire was kindled on top of the ground or on flat stones. An open fire of this nature could also be ringed with a small stone circle. Shallow holes or fire pits were also dug into the ground near the front of a tent or outside, in the encampment. Since tents did not have chimneys, the smoke from a fire would escape through the door. The seasonal climate dictated whether a fire was kindled inside or outside the tent.

Fires were ignited with twigs or kindling by friction or sparks (Isa. 50:11; 64:2; 2 Macc. 10:3), a skill learned during the early Stone Age. Once lit, the burning embers of the fire could be moved around, kept smoldering, and fanned into a blaze with fresh fuel (Isa. 30:14; cf. Lev. 6:13). Abraham carried some type of an ember or fire with him when he went to sacrifice Isaac (Gen. 22:6). The “smoking firepot with a blazing torch” that symbolized God’s presence before Abraham may refer to a portable device for transporting fire (15:17).

Fuel for fire was gathered from the materials most readily available to seminomadic groups. Potential fuels included thorns and briers (Isa. 10:17), dried grass (Matt. 6:30; Luke 12:28), charcoal (John 18:18 NRSV), twigs or sticks (Isa. 64:2), wood (Gen. 22:6), and dried animal dung (Ezek. 4:15). Fire pits provided some means for keeping a family warm, as well as being used for cooking.

Cooking within the Urban Lifestyle

The sedentary urban lifestyle of the monarchial period provided the opportunity to construct permanent cooking and heating installations. In the four-room Israelite house, cooking normally was done in a fire pit or clay oven in the courtyard of the home. The baking oven ordinarily was located outside, but archaeologists have found cooking utensils and ovens in the central room of the house. This indoor oven also served as a means of heat during the colder wet season. The family most likely utilized the courtyard oven during the hotter dry season.

Egyptian and Mesopotamian reliefs provide illustrations of the structure of ancient ovens. Archaeologists have uncovered scores of examples of different types and sizes all across the ancient Near East. Small domestic ovens (Exod. 8:3) were made of clay in two basic forms. The first had an open top and was cylindrical in shape. It ranged from two to three feet in height and was about two feet in diameter. The second, about the same size, was more egg-shaped, with small openings at the base and in the top.

Some ovens were covered with a plastered layer of potsherds on the outside to improve insulation. They could be embedded in the ground or raised above it. The oven floor was lined with pebbles, and the fire was built upon it. Commercial ovens were larger and were concentrated in specific areas of a city (Neh. 3:11; 12:38).

Ovens and fire pits were used for cooking and heating in the home. Other hearths or heating ovens were employed to warm larger buildings or to perform specific tasks not related to food preparation. A large oval hearth was discovered in the central room of an Iron Age II house at Shechem. Jeremiah 36:22–23 speaks about a “firepot” or hearth used by Jehoiakim to warm his winter apartment. This hearth may have been a raised copper or bronze basin on a three-legged stand. A “fire basin” (NIV: “firepot”) is also mentioned in Zech. 12:6.

Cooking Utensils

Many types of pottery utensils, which were undoubtedly associated with cooking and eating, have been discovered in archaeological excavations in the ancient Near East. Although rare, metal and stone implements have also been found. One area in the tent or the home would be employed as a “kitchen.” A kitchen in the palace of Ramesses III is depicted on an Egyptian wall, and Ezekiel mentions the kitchens located in the new temple (46:24). Cooking and serving vessels included platters, bowls, chalices, jugs, juglets, and cooking pots. Storage vessels and grain pits also were needed to contain spices, oils, grains, and other foodstuffs.

Larger bowls designed specifically for cooking were in common use during the Bronze and Iron Ages. These “cooking pots” often were placed directly into the fire or on hot coals and were used to boil meat or make soups and other similar types of food. Iron Age II cooking pots from Palestine generally bore the trademark of the potter. Cooking pots had a short life and were replaced often. Because the style of these types of pots changed systematically over time, they have become very important in helping archaeologists date the particular level or stratum of a tell in which they were found.

The Cooking of Food

The type of food eaten by families also depended on their socioeconomic status and lifestyle. Food staples included milk products, wine, bread, and occasionally meat. Richer families could afford vegetables, fruits, dates, figs, and other less common foods. All types of households ate bread.

Grains. The most common grains used in bread making were wheat, barley, and spelt (Isa. 28:25). Wheat grew wild in Palestine, and there is evidence that seminomadic people stayed in one place long enough to cultivate small plots of grain. Grain could also be acquired in trade for other agricultural products such as goat’s milk or wool. Grain was winnowed to separate the chaff from the kernels (Matt. 3:12; Luke 3:17). Roasted grain was grain that had been “popped” in the fire instead of being milled (1 Sam. 25:18).

After being winnowed, wheat and other grains were ground initially in a hand mill. Hand mills, or querns, were of two types. The first was a simple device of two stones. The base, or “saddle,” was a flat, elongated stone that became curved through the backward and forward motion of the upper stone. The upper, or “rider,” stone was flat on one side and curved on the top to allow the user to grip the stone with both hands. The grain was placed on the saddle, and the rider stone was run repeatedly over it to grind it. This was considered menial work (Lam. 5:13). This type of grinding may have been assigned to the blinded Samson (Judg. 16:21).

The second, later type of hand mill consisted of two stone disks approximately twelve inches in diameter. The lower stone, or base, had an upright wooden stake at the center. A hole in the upper stone allowed it to fit over the base, and a handle on the upper stone was used to rotate it against the lower stone (Matt. 24:41). Grain was fed through the central hole, and the milled flour exited along the sides. The millstone mentioned in Matt. 18:6; Mark 9:42; Luke 17:2 is a larger example of this type.

Milling grain was a necessary task of the household (Jer. 25:10). Course grain was further milled into fine flour with a mortar and pestle. Course grain could be used to make boiled porridge or gruel. Finely ground flour was used in sacrificial offerings (Exod. 29:40; Lev. 2:4).

The flour was mixed with water and kneaded (Gen. 18:6; 1 Sam. 28:24; 2 Sam. 13:8; Jer. 7:18), small amounts of leaven and salt were added, and then the bread was baked. Three methods of baking bread are mentioned in the OT: over hot coals (1 Kings 19:6; Isa. 44:19), on a griddle (Lev. 7:9; cf. Ezek. 4:3), and in an oven (Lev. 26:26). Leaven was withheld from the dough if the bread was to be made and eaten in haste (Exod. 12:39; Judg. 6:19; 1 Sam. 28:24). Griddle “cakes” were also made in this fashion (Hos. 7:8; cf. Ezek. 4:12).

Bread often was baked in different shapes. Thin bread was used to scoop food from a common pot (Matt. 26:23). Other breads were formed into loaves (John 6:9). In one man’s dream a round loaf of barley bread is described as rolling down a hill and striking and overturning a tent (Judg. 7:13). Both men and women baked bread (Gen. 19:3; 1 Sam. 28:24), and priests baked bread for ritual usage (Lev. 24:5). A king could afford to have men and women as professional bakers (Gen. 40:1; 1 Sam. 8:13). Professional bakers may also have served the larger urban population (Neh. 3:11; Jer. 37:21; Hos. 7:4) in Jerusalem.

Fruits and vegetables. After settling in Canaan, the Israelites made some additions to their diet. Foodstuffs grown in cultivated gardens were now available. These included foods such as cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, and garlic (Num. 11:5). Some of these vegetables were added to stews; others were eaten uncooked. Vegetable, bean, and lentil soups were prepared in large cooking pots placed directly on the fire. Esau particularly enjoyed lentil soup (Gen. 25:30). Herbs and spices (mint, dill, and cumin) were now accessible as well (Isa. 28:25, 27; Matt. 23:23). Salt came from the Dead Sea.

Fruits too were grown and harvested. Of particular interest was the olive. Olives were crushed in a press to render oil. Olive oil was used in cooking and baking. It was mixed with fine flour to make bread (1 Kings 17:12; Ezek. 16:13; cf. Num. 11:8).

Meat. When a guest arrived or when a special occasion called for it, meat was added to the stew. Meat often was boiled (2 Kings 4:38; Ezek. 24:3–5). Spices were also added (Ezek. 24:10). Since the meat was cut up to boil, this method had the advantage of avoiding the problem of ensuring that the blood was properly drained out of an animal before it could be roasted (Lev. 17:10–11). Milk could be used in the stew; however, cooking a kid in its mother’s milk was prohibited (Exod. 23:19; 34:26; Deut. 14:21).

Meat was roasted over an open fire on a spit. Meat was available from flocks and through hunting. Abraham served his guests veal (Gen. 18:7); Gideon and his guests ate goat meat (Judg. 6:19); Samuel appears to have served Saul a mutton leg (1 Sam. 9:24). Contrary to ritual regulations, Hophni and Phinehas demanded meat for roasting (1 Sam. 2:13–15). Meat certainly was roasted as a sacrifice on the altar of the tabernacle and the temple. It also normally was roasted on feast days such as Passover (Exod. 12:8–9).

Fish were counted among the foods given to Noah and his sons after the flood (Gen. 9:2–3). The Israelites ate fish in Egypt (Num. 11:15), and fishermen plied their trade along the Nile (Isa. 19:8). Fishermen could hook, spear, or net fish (Job 41:1, 7; Eccles. 9:12; Ezek. 29:4; 47:10). In Israel, fish were taken from the Sea of Galilee or the Mediterranean. Jerusalem had a “Fish Gate,” where fish were sold (2 Chron. 33:14; Neh. 3:3; 12:39; Zeph. 1:10). The Phoenicians most likely exported several varieties of edible fish to Israel. Fish with fins and scales were clean, but those without fins or scales were not (Lev. 11:9–12). In Nehemiah’s day Phoenicians were selling fish to the inhabitants of Jerusalem even on the Sabbath (Neh. 13:16).

In NT times, the Phoenicians continued to import much of the fish brought into Palestine. The ministry of Jesus revolved around the smaller fishing industry on the Sea of Galilee. Jesus called several fishermen to follow him as disciples (Matt. 4:18). On a number of occasions Jesus helped his disciples to ply their trade by directing them where to cast their nets (John 21:6, 11). Fish were caught in dragnets (John 21:8) and hand nets (Matt. 4:18). After his resurrection Jesus ate fish with his disciples in Jerusalem and on the Sea of Galilee (Luke 24:42; John 21:9).

Fish became a staple of the common people (Matt. 14:17; 15:34). The fish used to feed the multitudes probably were salted. Fish normally were grilled over an open fire (John 21:9).

Unlike modern systems of jurisprudence, the Bible does not draw distinctions between criminal, civil, family, and religious law, either in its terminology or in its presentation of legal material. In the Bible, acts of deviance that are defined as criminal in virtually all societies are discussed alongside violations of a culturally specific, religious nature. For instance, the Ten Commandments prohibit murder and dishonoring parents (Exod. 20:12–13), as well as commanding Sabbath observance (Exod. 20:8–11). Any attempt to extract a system of criminal law from biblical materials must account for the fact that every culture defines deviance differently, with respect not only to specific acts but also to categories of deviance.

When viewed from the standpoint of the Bible’s organization of legal material, the terminology used, and the sanctions applied, there is substantial overlap in the Bible between “crime” and what modern societies define as noncriminal deviance. For present purposes, we might define “crime” broadly as including any act of social deviance that merits the application of a sanction by society at large (as opposed to the ad hoc fiats of rulers, as in Gen. 26:11) and that can be prohibited in a generally applied rule (even accounting for differences between free citizens and slaves, as in Exod. 21:18–21). As we will see, the Bible requires punishments, often severe, for a broad spectrum of offenses.

Capital Crimes

The Pentateuch mandates the death penalty for a wide variety of crimes. Often the mode of execution is unspecified. Where a particular mode is prescribed, the death penalty most often consisted of stoning (as in Num. 15:35) and less frequently of burning (Lev. 20:14) or shooting with arrows (Exod. 19:13).

Crimes incurring the death penalty include killing or murder (Exod. 21:12–14; Lev. 24:17; Num. 35:16), though the crime is aggravated or lessened depending on the intention behind it (Exod. 21:13–14) and whether a weapon is involved (Num. 35:16); attacking parents (Exod. 21:15); kidnapping and slave trading (Exod. 21:16; Deut. 24:7); cursing parents (Exod 21:17; Lev. 20:9); negligence resulting in death (Exod. 21:29); bestial*ty (Exod. 22:19; Lev. 20:15–16); breach of the Sabbath (Exod. 31:14–15; Num. 15:35); child sacrifice (Lev. 20:2); adultery (Lev. 20:10; Deut. 22:22); incest (Lev. 20:11–12); hom*osexuality (Lev. 20:13); marrying a woman and her mother (Lev. 20:14); witchcraft (Exod. 22:18; Lev. 20:27); blasphemy (Exod. 24:16); unauthorized approach to the tabernacle (Num. 1:51); idolatry (Num. 25:5); false prophecy and divination (Deut. 13:5); presumptuous prophecy (Deut. 18:20); enticing others to idolatry (Deut. 13:6–10); false testimony in a capital case (Deut. 19:19); and contempt for authorities (Deut. 17:2; Josh. 1:18).

When the body of an executed criminal was displayed by hanging, it had to be removed by nightfall (Deut. 21:22). The death penalty was not to be applied vicariously to family members of criminals (Deut. 24:16). In OT texts, execution was to be carried out by the victims (Deut. 13:9), families of victims (the “avenger of blood” of Num. 35:19), or witnesses to the crime.

The NT mentions an official or professional executioner (Mark 6:27). Paul declares that the authorities rightly derive the power of the sword from God (Rom. 13:4).

Punishments for Noncapital Crimes

Corporal punishment. Beating as a criminal punishment is rare in the OT (Jer. 20:2; 37:15). Most OT references to beating occur in the context of the household, as a punishment for slaves or children. Deuteronomy 25:3 limits the number of strokes in a flogging to forty (see 2 Cor. 11:24). Flogging was commonly applied as a criminal punishment in Roman times, and it was a common mode of discipline within the Roman military (Acts 16:22; 2 Cor. 11:25; 1 Pet. 2:20).

Restitution. Crimes against property were punished by compelling the offender to make restitution by repaying, often in an amount that exceeded the actual damages, including in cases of theft or negligence (Exod. 21:33; 22:3–15); killing an animal (Lev. 24:18, 21); having sexual relations with a virgin not pledged to be married (Exod. 22:16); injuring a pregnant woman (Exod. 21:22); harming a slave (Exod. 21:26–27). Financial restitution could not be made for murder (Num. 35:31).

Retribution. The notion of the lex talionis, the law of retribution, is stated in Exod. 21:23–24: “life for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot” (cf. Lev. 24:19–20; Deut. 19:21; Matt. 5:38). This formula appears in other ancient legal traditions. The idea of bodily mutilation may strike modern readers as barbaric, but such laws may actually have been relatively enlightened by ancient standards, as they imposed a proportional limit on retribution.

Incarceration. In modern societies, incarceration and probation account for the vast majority of the punishments resulting from criminal offenses. In the OT, incarceration is rarely mentioned apart from the imprisonment of war captives (e.g., Judg. 16:21) and political dissidents. Jeremiah was imprisoned several times for his criticism of the regime (Jer. 32:2; 37:15). Throughout the Bible, prisoners often are guarded by soldiers rather than by professional jailers.

Paul imprisoned Christians prior to his conversion (Acts 8:3), and he himself was imprisoned or placed under arrest several times (e.g., Acts 16:23; 20:23; 24:27; Rom. 16:7). John the Baptist was imprisoned after he criticized Herod (Mark 6:17). Again, in both cases, incarceration was used to silence and segregate someone whose free movement in society threatened political stability rather than to punish a common criminal. In Matt. 5:25–26 Jesus refers to imprisonment for an unspecified reason, though the threat that “you will not get out until you have paid the last penny” suggests that incarceration was a substitute for an unpaid fine or monetary penalty. This recalls Exod. 22:3, which mandates that a thief who could not make financial restitution for theft must be sold (as a slave).

Banishment and cities of refuge. A number of OT passages refer to the “cutting off” of a person from the community. It is not clear whether this language refers to exile or the death penalty; several of the crimes thus punished are known to be capital crimes in other texts.

The law of Num. 35:6–34 establishes six “cities of refuge” among the towns allotted to the Levites. To these cities an unintentional killer could flee from the “avenger of blood,” a relative of the victim, until such time as the case could be adjudicated by the whole community. A killer who was found to have acted unintentionally and without malice could remain in the city of refuge, safe from retribution, until the death of the high priest, at which time the killer was free to return home with impunity.

Trials and Judgments

In biblical times Israel did not have an independent judiciary. Judgments in criminal cases were rendered by local elders (Josh. 20:4), communities (Num. 35:24), monarchs, or other rulers and officials. The judges of the book of Judges were primarily military rulers, though they may have also adjudicated cases as a function of their military and political power (Judg. 4:5). Cases were decided on the basis of eyewitness testimony (Num. 35:30) and, in the case of capital crimes, on the basis of multiple witnesses (Deut. 17:6). In some cases, the Bible provides detailed statutory criteria for making such judgments, as in the discussion in Num. 35:16–28 of the difference between murder and unintentional killing. In some cases, where the determination of guilt or innocence would have been impossible, as in the case of suspected adultery, a verdict could be attained through divination (Num. 5:11–31). As already noted, the judgment of some cases could be affected by the slave status of those involved (Exod. 20:20–21; see also 22:8–9).

The trial and execution of Naboth, though ultimately a subversion of justice of the highest order, offers an insight into the operation of justice in Israel in the monarchic period (1 Kings 21:1–16). Naboth was accused on a trumped-up charge of blasphemy, a capital crime (Exod. 24:16). He was tried by the notables of his city, and on the testimony of two (false) witnesses (Deut. 17:6), he was then stoned to death.

From the standpoint of OT law, the trial and execution of Jesus were complicated by the context of concurrent systems of Jewish and Roman law and government. Like Naboth, Jesus was accused by false witnesses (Matt. 26:60–61). Ultimately, the Sanhedrin determined that because Jesus had blasphemed in its presence by identifying himself as the Messiah and the Son of God, further witness testimony was unnecessary in order to achieve the desired result, the death penalty (Matt. 26:65–66; John 19:7). Ultimately, the Sanhedrin had to involve the Roman governor because it lacked the authority to execute a criminal (John 18:31). By the time Jesus was taken before Pilate, the charge had been changed from a religious one to a political one: Jesus claimed to be the king of the Jews, thus subverting Roman authority (Matt. 26:11–12). Eventually, Pilate tortured and executed Jesus not because he saw merit in the charges but rather to avoid a riot (Matt. 27:24; John 19:4, 12). Luke reports that Jesus also had a trial before Herod Antipas, the ruler to whom Jesus was subject as a Galilean (23:7). Thus, the trial of Jesus in some ways reflects both Jewish and Roman law, but it also involves some purely pragmatic (and legally and morally questionable) actions on the part of both the Sanhedrin and Pilate.

Unlike modern systems of jurisprudence, the Bible does not draw distinctions between criminal, civil, family, and religious law, either in its terminology or in its presentation of legal material. In the Bible, acts of deviance that are defined as criminal in virtually all societies are discussed alongside violations of a culturally specific, religious nature. For instance, the Ten Commandments prohibit murder and dishonoring parents (Exod. 20:12–13), as well as commanding Sabbath observance (Exod. 20:8–11). Any attempt to extract a system of criminal law from biblical materials must account for the fact that every culture defines deviance differently, with respect not only to specific acts but also to categories of deviance.

When viewed from the standpoint of the Bible’s organization of legal material, the terminology used, and the sanctions applied, there is substantial overlap in the Bible between “crime” and what modern societies define as noncriminal deviance. For present purposes, we might define “crime” broadly as including any act of social deviance that merits the application of a sanction by society at large (as opposed to the ad hoc fiats of rulers, as in Gen. 26:11) and that can be prohibited in a generally applied rule (even accounting for differences between free citizens and slaves, as in Exod. 21:18–21). As we will see, the Bible requires punishments, often severe, for a broad spectrum of offenses.

Capital Crimes

The Pentateuch mandates the death penalty for a wide variety of crimes. Often the mode of execution is unspecified. Where a particular mode is prescribed, the death penalty most often consisted of stoning (as in Num. 15:35) and less frequently of burning (Lev. 20:14) or shooting with arrows (Exod. 19:13).

Crimes incurring the death penalty include killing or murder (Exod. 21:12–14; Lev. 24:17; Num. 35:16), though the crime is aggravated or lessened depending on the intention behind it (Exod. 21:13–14) and whether a weapon is involved (Num. 35:16); attacking parents (Exod. 21:15); kidnapping and slave trading (Exod. 21:16; Deut. 24:7); cursing parents (Exod 21:17; Lev. 20:9); negligence resulting in death (Exod. 21:29); bestial*ty (Exod. 22:19; Lev. 20:15–16); breach of the Sabbath (Exod. 31:14–15; Num. 15:35); child sacrifice (Lev. 20:2); adultery (Lev. 20:10; Deut. 22:22); incest (Lev. 20:11–12); hom*osexuality (Lev. 20:13); marrying a woman and her mother (Lev. 20:14); witchcraft (Exod. 22:18; Lev. 20:27); blasphemy (Exod. 24:16); unauthorized approach to the tabernacle (Num. 1:51); idolatry (Num. 25:5); false prophecy and divination (Deut. 13:5); presumptuous prophecy (Deut. 18:20); enticing others to idolatry (Deut. 13:6–10); false testimony in a capital case (Deut. 19:19); and contempt for authorities (Deut. 17:2; Josh. 1:18).

When the body of an executed criminal was displayed by hanging, it had to be removed by nightfall (Deut. 21:22). The death penalty was not to be applied vicariously to family members of criminals (Deut. 24:16). In OT texts, execution was to be carried out by the victims (Deut. 13:9), families of victims (the “avenger of blood” of Num. 35:19), or witnesses to the crime.

The NT mentions an official or professional executioner (Mark 6:27). Paul declares that the authorities rightly derive the power of the sword from God (Rom. 13:4).

Punishments for Noncapital Crimes

Corporal punishment. Beating as a criminal punishment is rare in the OT (Jer. 20:2; 37:15). Most OT references to beating occur in the context of the household, as a punishment for slaves or children. Deuteronomy 25:3 limits the number of strokes in a flogging to forty (see 2 Cor. 11:24). Flogging was commonly applied as a criminal punishment in Roman times, and it was a common mode of discipline within the Roman military (Acts 16:22; 2 Cor. 11:25; 1 Pet. 2:20).

Restitution. Crimes against property were punished by compelling the offender to make restitution by repaying, often in an amount that exceeded the actual damages, including in cases of theft or negligence (Exod. 21:33; 22:3–15); killing an animal (Lev. 24:18, 21); having sexual relations with a virgin not pledged to be married (Exod. 22:16); injuring a pregnant woman (Exod. 21:22); harming a slave (Exod. 21:26–27). Financial restitution could not be made for murder (Num. 35:31).

Retribution. The notion of the lex talionis, the law of retribution, is stated in Exod. 21:23–24: “life for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot” (cf. Lev. 24:19–20; Deut. 19:21; Matt. 5:38). This formula appears in other ancient legal traditions. The idea of bodily mutilation may strike modern readers as barbaric, but such laws may actually have been relatively enlightened by ancient standards, as they imposed a proportional limit on retribution.

Incarceration. In modern societies, incarceration and probation account for the vast majority of the punishments resulting from criminal offenses. In the OT, incarceration is rarely mentioned apart from the imprisonment of war captives (e.g., Judg. 16:21) and political dissidents. Jeremiah was imprisoned several times for his criticism of the regime (Jer. 32:2; 37:15). Throughout the Bible, prisoners often are guarded by soldiers rather than by professional jailers.

Paul imprisoned Christians prior to his conversion (Acts 8:3), and he himself was imprisoned or placed under arrest several times (e.g., Acts 16:23; 20:23; 24:27; Rom. 16:7). John the Baptist was imprisoned after he criticized Herod (Mark 6:17). Again, in both cases, incarceration was used to silence and segregate someone whose free movement in society threatened political stability rather than to punish a common criminal. In Matt. 5:25–26 Jesus refers to imprisonment for an unspecified reason, though the threat that “you will not get out until you have paid the last penny” suggests that incarceration was a substitute for an unpaid fine or monetary penalty. This recalls Exod. 22:3, which mandates that a thief who could not make financial restitution for theft must be sold (as a slave).

Banishment and cities of refuge. A number of OT passages refer to the “cutting off” of a person from the community. It is not clear whether this language refers to exile or the death penalty; several of the crimes thus punished are known to be capital crimes in other texts.

The law of Num. 35:6–34 establishes six “cities of refuge” among the towns allotted to the Levites. To these cities an unintentional killer could flee from the “avenger of blood,” a relative of the victim, until such time as the case could be adjudicated by the whole community. A killer who was found to have acted unintentionally and without malice could remain in the city of refuge, safe from retribution, until the death of the high priest, at which time the killer was free to return home with impunity.

Trials and Judgments

In biblical times Israel did not have an independent judiciary. Judgments in criminal cases were rendered by local elders (Josh. 20:4), communities (Num. 35:24), monarchs, or other rulers and officials. The judges of the book of Judges were primarily military rulers, though they may have also adjudicated cases as a function of their military and political power (Judg. 4:5). Cases were decided on the basis of eyewitness testimony (Num. 35:30) and, in the case of capital crimes, on the basis of multiple witnesses (Deut. 17:6). In some cases, the Bible provides detailed statutory criteria for making such judgments, as in the discussion in Num. 35:16–28 of the difference between murder and unintentional killing. In some cases, where the determination of guilt or innocence would have been impossible, as in the case of suspected adultery, a verdict could be attained through divination (Num. 5:11–31). As already noted, the judgment of some cases could be affected by the slave status of those involved (Exod. 20:20–21; see also 22:8–9).

The trial and execution of Naboth, though ultimately a subversion of justice of the highest order, offers an insight into the operation of justice in Israel in the monarchic period (1 Kings 21:1–16). Naboth was accused on a trumped-up charge of blasphemy, a capital crime (Exod. 24:16). He was tried by the notables of his city, and on the testimony of two (false) witnesses (Deut. 17:6), he was then stoned to death.

From the standpoint of OT law, the trial and execution of Jesus were complicated by the context of concurrent systems of Jewish and Roman law and government. Like Naboth, Jesus was accused by false witnesses (Matt. 26:60–61). Ultimately, the Sanhedrin determined that because Jesus had blasphemed in its presence by identifying himself as the Messiah and the Son of God, further witness testimony was unnecessary in order to achieve the desired result, the death penalty (Matt. 26:65–66; John 19:7). Ultimately, the Sanhedrin had to involve the Roman governor because it lacked the authority to execute a criminal (John 18:31). By the time Jesus was taken before Pilate, the charge had been changed from a religious one to a political one: Jesus claimed to be the king of the Jews, thus subverting Roman authority (Matt. 26:11–12). Eventually, Pilate tortured and executed Jesus not because he saw merit in the charges but rather to avoid a riot (Matt. 27:24; John 19:4, 12). Luke reports that Jesus also had a trial before Herod Antipas, the ruler to whom Jesus was subject as a Galilean (23:7). Thus, the trial of Jesus in some ways reflects both Jewish and Roman law, but it also involves some purely pragmatic (and legally and morally questionable) actions on the part of both the Sanhedrin and Pilate.

Unlike modern systems of jurisprudence, the Bible does not draw distinctions between criminal, civil, family, and religious law, either in its terminology or in its presentation of legal material. In the Bible, acts of deviance that are defined as criminal in virtually all societies are discussed alongside violations of a culturally specific, religious nature. For instance, the Ten Commandments prohibit murder and dishonoring parents (Exod. 20:12–13), as well as commanding Sabbath observance (Exod. 20:8–11). Any attempt to extract a system of criminal law from biblical materials must account for the fact that every culture defines deviance differently, with respect not only to specific acts but also to categories of deviance.

When viewed from the standpoint of the Bible’s organization of legal material, the terminology used, and the sanctions applied, there is substantial overlap in the Bible between “crime” and what modern societies define as noncriminal deviance. For present purposes, we might define “crime” broadly as including any act of social deviance that merits the application of a sanction by society at large (as opposed to the ad hoc fiats of rulers, as in Gen. 26:11) and that can be prohibited in a generally applied rule (even accounting for differences between free citizens and slaves, as in Exod. 21:18–21). As we will see, the Bible requires punishments, often severe, for a broad spectrum of offenses.

Capital Crimes

The Pentateuch mandates the death penalty for a wide variety of crimes. Often the mode of execution is unspecified. Where a particular mode is prescribed, the death penalty most often consisted of stoning (as in Num. 15:35) and less frequently of burning (Lev. 20:14) or shooting with arrows (Exod. 19:13).

Crimes incurring the death penalty include killing or murder (Exod. 21:12–14; Lev. 24:17; Num. 35:16), though the crime is aggravated or lessened depending on the intention behind it (Exod. 21:13–14) and whether a weapon is involved (Num. 35:16); attacking parents (Exod. 21:15); kidnapping and slave trading (Exod. 21:16; Deut. 24:7); cursing parents (Exod 21:17; Lev. 20:9); negligence resulting in death (Exod. 21:29); bestial*ty (Exod. 22:19; Lev. 20:15–16); breach of the Sabbath (Exod. 31:14–15; Num. 15:35); child sacrifice (Lev. 20:2); adultery (Lev. 20:10; Deut. 22:22); incest (Lev. 20:11–12); hom*osexuality (Lev. 20:13); marrying a woman and her mother (Lev. 20:14); witchcraft (Exod. 22:18; Lev. 20:27); blasphemy (Exod. 24:16); unauthorized approach to the tabernacle (Num. 1:51); idolatry (Num. 25:5); false prophecy and divination (Deut. 13:5); presumptuous prophecy (Deut. 18:20); enticing others to idolatry (Deut. 13:6–10); false testimony in a capital case (Deut. 19:19); and contempt for authorities (Deut. 17:2; Josh. 1:18).

When the body of an executed criminal was displayed by hanging, it had to be removed by nightfall (Deut. 21:22). The death penalty was not to be applied vicariously to family members of criminals (Deut. 24:16). In OT texts, execution was to be carried out by the victims (Deut. 13:9), families of victims (the “avenger of blood” of Num. 35:19), or witnesses to the crime.

The NT mentions an official or professional executioner (Mark 6:27). Paul declares that the authorities rightly derive the power of the sword from God (Rom. 13:4).

Punishments for Noncapital Crimes

Corporal punishment. Beating as a criminal punishment is rare in the OT (Jer. 20:2; 37:15). Most OT references to beating occur in the context of the household, as a punishment for slaves or children. Deuteronomy 25:3 limits the number of strokes in a flogging to forty (see 2 Cor. 11:24). Flogging was commonly applied as a criminal punishment in Roman times, and it was a common mode of discipline within the Roman military (Acts 16:22; 2 Cor. 11:25; 1 Pet. 2:20).

Restitution. Crimes against property were punished by compelling the offender to make restitution by repaying, often in an amount that exceeded the actual damages, including in cases of theft or negligence (Exod. 21:33; 22:3–15); killing an animal (Lev. 24:18, 21); having sexual relations with a virgin not pledged to be married (Exod. 22:16); injuring a pregnant woman (Exod. 21:22); harming a slave (Exod. 21:26–27). Financial restitution could not be made for murder (Num. 35:31).

Retribution. The notion of the lex talionis, the law of retribution, is stated in Exod. 21:23–24: “life for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot” (cf. Lev. 24:19–20; Deut. 19:21; Matt. 5:38). This formula appears in other ancient legal traditions. The idea of bodily mutilation may strike modern readers as barbaric, but such laws may actually have been relatively enlightened by ancient standards, as they imposed a proportional limit on retribution.

Incarceration. In modern societies, incarceration and probation account for the vast majority of the punishments resulting from criminal offenses. In the OT, incarceration is rarely mentioned apart from the imprisonment of war captives (e.g., Judg. 16:21) and political dissidents. Jeremiah was imprisoned several times for his criticism of the regime (Jer. 32:2; 37:15). Throughout the Bible, prisoners often are guarded by soldiers rather than by professional jailers.

Paul imprisoned Christians prior to his conversion (Acts 8:3), and he himself was imprisoned or placed under arrest several times (e.g., Acts 16:23; 20:23; 24:27; Rom. 16:7). John the Baptist was imprisoned after he criticized Herod (Mark 6:17). Again, in both cases, incarceration was used to silence and segregate someone whose free movement in society threatened political stability rather than to punish a common criminal. In Matt. 5:25–26 Jesus refers to imprisonment for an unspecified reason, though the threat that “you will not get out until you have paid the last penny” suggests that incarceration was a substitute for an unpaid fine or monetary penalty. This recalls Exod. 22:3, which mandates that a thief who could not make financial restitution for theft must be sold (as a slave).

Banishment and cities of refuge. A number of OT passages refer to the “cutting off” of a person from the community. It is not clear whether this language refers to exile or the death penalty; several of the crimes thus punished are known to be capital crimes in other texts.

The law of Num. 35:6–34 establishes six “cities of refuge” among the towns allotted to the Levites. To these cities an unintentional killer could flee from the “avenger of blood,” a relative of the victim, until such time as the case could be adjudicated by the whole community. A killer who was found to have acted unintentionally and without malice could remain in the city of refuge, safe from retribution, until the death of the high priest, at which time the killer was free to return home with impunity.

Trials and Judgments

In biblical times Israel did not have an independent judiciary. Judgments in criminal cases were rendered by local elders (Josh. 20:4), communities (Num. 35:24), monarchs, or other rulers and officials. The judges of the book of Judges were primarily military rulers, though they may have also adjudicated cases as a function of their military and political power (Judg. 4:5). Cases were decided on the basis of eyewitness testimony (Num. 35:30) and, in the case of capital crimes, on the basis of multiple witnesses (Deut. 17:6). In some cases, the Bible provides detailed statutory criteria for making such judgments, as in the discussion in Num. 35:16–28 of the difference between murder and unintentional killing. In some cases, where the determination of guilt or innocence would have been impossible, as in the case of suspected adultery, a verdict could be attained through divination (Num. 5:11–31). As already noted, the judgment of some cases could be affected by the slave status of those involved (Exod. 20:20–21; see also 22:8–9).

The trial and execution of Naboth, though ultimately a subversion of justice of the highest order, offers an insight into the operation of justice in Israel in the monarchic period (1 Kings 21:1–16). Naboth was accused on a trumped-up charge of blasphemy, a capital crime (Exod. 24:16). He was tried by the notables of his city, and on the testimony of two (false) witnesses (Deut. 17:6), he was then stoned to death.

From the standpoint of OT law, the trial and execution of Jesus were complicated by the context of concurrent systems of Jewish and Roman law and government. Like Naboth, Jesus was accused by false witnesses (Matt. 26:60–61). Ultimately, the Sanhedrin determined that because Jesus had blasphemed in its presence by identifying himself as the Messiah and the Son of God, further witness testimony was unnecessary in order to achieve the desired result, the death penalty (Matt. 26:65–66; John 19:7). Ultimately, the Sanhedrin had to involve the Roman governor because it lacked the authority to execute a criminal (John 18:31). By the time Jesus was taken before Pilate, the charge had been changed from a religious one to a political one: Jesus claimed to be the king of the Jews, thus subverting Roman authority (Matt. 26:11–12). Eventually, Pilate tortured and executed Jesus not because he saw merit in the charges but rather to avoid a riot (Matt. 27:24; John 19:4, 12). Luke reports that Jesus also had a trial before Herod Antipas, the ruler to whom Jesus was subject as a Galilean (23:7). Thus, the trial of Jesus in some ways reflects both Jewish and Roman law, but it also involves some purely pragmatic (and legally and morally questionable) actions on the part of both the Sanhedrin and Pilate.

In the ancient Near East the type of cooking and heating utilized within a household depended upon the family’s socioeconomic status and lifestyle. A nomadic or seminomadic pastoral lifestyle demanded portability; permanent ovens or heating installations would have been impractical. A stable urban lifestyle made possible the construction of more complex heating and cooking equipment.

Cooking within the Seminomadic Lifestyle

Seminomadic groups, such as Abraham and his family or the Israelites before the settlement of Canaan, probably used an open fire or fire pit. A campfire was kindled on top of the ground or on flat stones. An open fire of this nature could also be ringed with a small stone circle. Shallow holes or fire pits were also dug into the ground near the front of a tent or outside, in the encampment. Since tents did not have chimneys, the smoke from a fire would escape through the door. The seasonal climate dictated whether a fire was kindled inside or outside the tent.

Fires were ignited with twigs or kindling by friction or sparks (Isa. 50:11; 64:2; 2 Macc. 10:3), a skill learned during the early Stone Age. Once lit, the burning embers of the fire could be moved around, kept smoldering, and fanned into a blaze with fresh fuel (Isa. 30:14; cf. Lev. 6:13). Abraham carried some type of an ember or fire with him when he went to sacrifice Isaac (Gen. 22:6). The “smoking firepot with a blazing torch” that symbolized God’s presence before Abraham may refer to a portable device for transporting fire (15:17).

Fuel for fire was gathered from the materials most readily available to seminomadic groups. Potential fuels included thorns and briers (Isa. 10:17), dried grass (Matt. 6:30; Luke 12:28), charcoal (John 18:18 NRSV), twigs or sticks (Isa. 64:2), wood (Gen. 22:6), and dried animal dung (Ezek. 4:15). Fire pits provided some means for keeping a family warm, as well as being used for cooking.

Cooking within the Urban Lifestyle

The sedentary urban lifestyle of the monarchial period provided the opportunity to construct permanent cooking and heating installations. In the four-room Israelite house, cooking normally was done in a fire pit or clay oven in the courtyard of the home. The baking oven ordinarily was located outside, but archaeologists have found cooking utensils and ovens in the central room of the house. This indoor oven also served as a means of heat during the colder wet season. The family most likely utilized the courtyard oven during the hotter dry season.

Egyptian and Mesopotamian reliefs provide illustrations of the structure of ancient ovens. Archaeologists have uncovered scores of examples of different types and sizes all across the ancient Near East. Small domestic ovens (Exod. 8:3) were made of clay in two basic forms. The first had an open top and was cylindrical in shape. It ranged from two to three feet in height and was about two feet in diameter. The second, about the same size, was more egg-shaped, with small openings at the base and in the top.

Some ovens were covered with a plastered layer of potsherds on the outside to improve insulation. They could be embedded in the ground or raised above it. The oven floor was lined with pebbles, and the fire was built upon it. Commercial ovens were larger and were concentrated in specific areas of a city (Neh. 3:11; 12:38).

Ovens and fire pits were used for cooking and heating in the home. Other hearths or heating ovens were employed to warm larger buildings or to perform specific tasks not related to food preparation. A large oval hearth was discovered in the central room of an Iron Age II house at Shechem. Jeremiah 36:22–23 speaks about a “firepot” or hearth used by Jehoiakim to warm his winter apartment. This hearth may have been a raised copper or bronze basin on a three-legged stand. A “fire basin” (NIV: “firepot”) is also mentioned in Zech. 12:6.

Cooking Utensils

Many types of pottery utensils, which were undoubtedly associated with cooking and eating, have been discovered in archaeological excavations in the ancient Near East. Although rare, metal and stone implements have also been found. One area in the tent or the home would be employed as a “kitchen.” A kitchen in the palace of Ramesses III is depicted on an Egyptian wall, and Ezekiel mentions the kitchens located in the new temple (46:24). Cooking and serving vessels included platters, bowls, chalices, jugs, juglets, and cooking pots. Storage vessels and grain pits also were needed to contain spices, oils, grains, and other foodstuffs.

Larger bowls designed specifically for cooking were in common use during the Bronze and Iron Ages. These “cooking pots” often were placed directly into the fire or on hot coals and were used to boil meat or make soups and other similar types of food. Iron Age II cooking pots from Palestine generally bore the trademark of the potter. Cooking pots had a short life and were replaced often. Because the style of these types of pots changed systematically over time, they have become very important in helping archaeologists date the particular level or stratum of a tell in which they were found.

The Cooking of Food

The type of food eaten by families also depended on their socioeconomic status and lifestyle. Food staples included milk products, wine, bread, and occasionally meat. Richer families could afford vegetables, fruits, dates, figs, and other less common foods. All types of households ate bread.

Grains. The most common grains used in bread making were wheat, barley, and spelt (Isa. 28:25). Wheat grew wild in Palestine, and there is evidence that seminomadic people stayed in one place long enough to cultivate small plots of grain. Grain could also be acquired in trade for other agricultural products such as goat’s milk or wool. Grain was winnowed to separate the chaff from the kernels (Matt. 3:12; Luke 3:17). Roasted grain was grain that had been “popped” in the fire instead of being milled (1 Sam. 25:18).

After being winnowed, wheat and other grains were ground initially in a hand mill. Hand mills, or querns, were of two types. The first was a simple device of two stones. The base, or “saddle,” was a flat, elongated stone that became curved through the backward and forward motion of the upper stone. The upper, or “rider,” stone was flat on one side and curved on the top to allow the user to grip the stone with both hands. The grain was placed on the saddle, and the rider stone was run repeatedly over it to grind it. This was considered menial work (Lam. 5:13). This type of grinding may have been assigned to the blinded Samson (Judg. 16:21).

The second, later type of hand mill consisted of two stone disks approximately twelve inches in diameter. The lower stone, or base, had an upright wooden stake at the center. A hole in the upper stone allowed it to fit over the base, and a handle on the upper stone was used to rotate it against the lower stone (Matt. 24:41). Grain was fed through the central hole, and the milled flour exited along the sides. The millstone mentioned in Matt. 18:6; Mark 9:42; Luke 17:2 is a larger example of this type.

Milling grain was a necessary task of the household (Jer. 25:10). Course grain was further milled into fine flour with a mortar and pestle. Course grain could be used to make boiled porridge or gruel. Finely ground flour was used in sacrificial offerings (Exod. 29:40; Lev. 2:4).

The flour was mixed with water and kneaded (Gen. 18:6; 1 Sam. 28:24; 2 Sam. 13:8; Jer. 7:18), small amounts of leaven and salt were added, and then the bread was baked. Three methods of baking bread are mentioned in the OT: over hot coals (1 Kings 19:6; Isa. 44:19), on a griddle (Lev. 7:9; cf. Ezek. 4:3), and in an oven (Lev. 26:26). Leaven was withheld from the dough if the bread was to be made and eaten in haste (Exod. 12:39; Judg. 6:19; 1 Sam. 28:24). Griddle “cakes” were also made in this fashion (Hos. 7:8; cf. Ezek. 4:12).

Bread often was baked in different shapes. Thin bread was used to scoop food from a common pot (Matt. 26:23). Other breads were formed into loaves (John 6:9). In one man’s dream a round loaf of barley bread is described as rolling down a hill and striking and overturning a tent (Judg. 7:13). Both men and women baked bread (Gen. 19:3; 1 Sam. 28:24), and priests baked bread for ritual usage (Lev. 24:5). A king could afford to have men and women as professional bakers (Gen. 40:1; 1 Sam. 8:13). Professional bakers may also have served the larger urban population (Neh. 3:11; Jer. 37:21; Hos. 7:4) in Jerusalem.

Fruits and vegetables. After settling in Canaan, the Israelites made some additions to their diet. Foodstuffs grown in cultivated gardens were now available. These included foods such as cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, and garlic (Num. 11:5). Some of these vegetables were added to stews; others were eaten uncooked. Vegetable, bean, and lentil soups were prepared in large cooking pots placed directly on the fire. Esau particularly enjoyed lentil soup (Gen. 25:30). Herbs and spices (mint, dill, and cumin) were now accessible as well (Isa. 28:25, 27; Matt. 23:23). Salt came from the Dead Sea.

Fruits too were grown and harvested. Of particular interest was the olive. Olives were crushed in a press to render oil. Olive oil was used in cooking and baking. It was mixed with fine flour to make bread (1 Kings 17:12; Ezek. 16:13; cf. Num. 11:8).

Meat. When a guest arrived or when a special occasion called for it, meat was added to the stew. Meat often was boiled (2 Kings 4:38; Ezek. 24:3–5). Spices were also added (Ezek. 24:10). Since the meat was cut up to boil, this method had the advantage of avoiding the problem of ensuring that the blood was properly drained out of an animal before it could be roasted (Lev. 17:10–11). Milk could be used in the stew; however, cooking a kid in its mother’s milk was prohibited (Exod. 23:19; 34:26; Deut. 14:21).

Meat was roasted over an open fire on a spit. Meat was available from flocks and through hunting. Abraham served his guests veal (Gen. 18:7); Gideon and his guests ate goat meat (Judg. 6:19); Samuel appears to have served Saul a mutton leg (1 Sam. 9:24). Contrary to ritual regulations, Hophni and Phinehas demanded meat for roasting (1 Sam. 2:13–15). Meat certainly was roasted as a sacrifice on the altar of the tabernacle and the temple. It also normally was roasted on feast days such as Passover (Exod. 12:8–9).

Fish were counted among the foods given to Noah and his sons after the flood (Gen. 9:2–3). The Israelites ate fish in Egypt (Num. 11:15), and fishermen plied their trade along the Nile (Isa. 19:8). Fishermen could hook, spear, or net fish (Job 41:1, 7; Eccles. 9:12; Ezek. 29:4; 47:10). In Israel, fish were taken from the Sea of Galilee or the Mediterranean. Jerusalem had a “Fish Gate,” where fish were sold (2 Chron. 33:14; Neh. 3:3; 12:39; Zeph. 1:10). The Phoenicians most likely exported several varieties of edible fish to Israel. Fish with fins and scales were clean, but those without fins or scales were not (Lev. 11:9–12). In Nehemiah’s day Phoenicians were selling fish to the inhabitants of Jerusalem even on the Sabbath (Neh. 13:16).

In NT times, the Phoenicians continued to import much of the fish brought into Palestine. The ministry of Jesus revolved around the smaller fishing industry on the Sea of Galilee. Jesus called several fishermen to follow him as disciples (Matt. 4:18). On a number of occasions Jesus helped his disciples to ply their trade by directing them where to cast their nets (John 21:6, 11). Fish were caught in dragnets (John 21:8) and hand nets (Matt. 4:18). After his resurrection Jesus ate fish with his disciples in Jerusalem and on the Sea of Galilee (Luke 24:42; John 21:9).

Fish became a staple of the common people (Matt. 14:17; 15:34). The fish used to feed the multitudes probably were salted. Fish normally were grilled over an open fire (John 21:9).

The names of God given in the Bible are an important means ofrevelation about his character and works. The names come from threesources: God himself, those who encounter him in the biblical record,and the biblical writers. This article is concerned mainly with thenames that occur in the OT, though the NT will be referenced whenhelpful.

Inthe Bible the meaning of names is often significant and points to thecharacter of the person so named. As might be expected, this isespecially true for God. The names that he gives to himself alwaysare a form of revelation; the names that humans give to God often area form of testimony.

Yahweh:The Lord

Pronunciation.Unquestionably, for OT revelation the most important name is “(the)Lord.” In English Bibles this represents the name declared byGod to Moses at the burning bush (“I am who I am” [Exod.3:13–15]) and the related term used elsewhere in the OT; inHebrew this term consists of the four consonants YHWH and istherefore known as the Tetragrammaton (“four letters”).Hebrew does not count vowels as part of its alphabet; in biblicaltimes one simply wrote the consonants of a word and the readersupplied the correct vowels by knowing the vocabulary, grammar, andcontext. However, to avoid violating the commandment in the Decaloguethat prohibits the misuse of God’s name (Exod. 20:7; Deut.5:11), the Jews stopped pronouncing it. Consequently, no one todayknows its correct original pronunciation, but the best evidenceavailable suggests “Yahweh,” which has become theconventional pronunciation (consider the Hebrew word “hallelujah,”which actually is “hallelu-Yah,” hence “praise theLord”). In ancient Jewish tradition, “Adonai” (“myLord”) was substituted for “Yahweh.” In fact, whenHebrew eventually developed a vowel notation system, instead of thevowels for “Yahweh,” the vowels for “Adonai”were indicated whenever YHWH appeared in the biblical text, as areminder. Combining the consonants YHWH with the vowels of “Adonai”yields something like “Yehowah,” which is the origin ofthe familiar (but mistaken and nonexistent) “Jehovah.”English Bibles typically use “Lord” (small capitalletters) for “Yahweh,” and “Lord” (regularletters) for “Adonai,” which distinguishes thetwo.

Meaning.More vital than the matter of the pronunciation of YHWH is thequestion of its meaning. There seem to be two main opinions. One seesYHWH as denoting eternal self-existence, partly because it issuggested by the grammar of Exod. 3:14 (the words “I am”use a form of the Hebrew verb that suggests being without beginningor end) and partly because that is the meaning Jesus apparentlyascribes to it in John 8:58. The other opinion, suggested by usage,is that YHWH indicates dynamic, active, divine presence: God’sbeing present in a special way to act on someone’s behalf(e.g., Gen. 26:28; 39:2–3; Josh. 6:27; 1Sam. 18:12–14).This idea also appears in the episode of the burning bush (Exod.3:12): when Moses protests his inadequacy to confront Pharaoh, Godassures him of his presence, a reality noted with other prophets(1Sam. 3:19; Jer. 1:8).

Perhapsthe best points of reference for understanding the meaning of YHWHare God’s own proclamations. In addition to Exod. 3:13–15,at least two other passages in Exodus give God’s commentary (asit were) about the meaning of his name. An important one is Exod.34:5–7. A key passage in the theology proper of ancient Israel,its themes echo in later OT Scripture (Num. 14:18–19; Ps.103:7–12; Jon. 4:2). What is noteworthy about the texts citedis that all of them say something remarkable about the grace of God.This fits, for the revelation of Exod. 34:5–7 is given in thecontext of covenant renewal after the incident of the golden calf.Moses invokes God’s name in the Numbers text to avoidcatastrophic judgment when the Israelites refuse to enter thepromised land. The psalm text picks up this theme and connects itwith God’s revelation of his ways to the chosen people. Jonah,remarkably, affirms that the same grace extends even toward a wickedGentile city such as Nineveh.

Anothersuch passage is Exod. 6:2–8.Here God reaffirms hisredemptive purpose for captive Israel, despite the fact that Moses’first encounter with Pharaoh has not gone well. God assures theprophet that he has remembered his covenant with the patriarchs, whomhe says did not know him as “Yahweh,” which probablymeans that the patriarchs did not experience him in the way orcharacter that their descendants would in the exodus event (though itis possible to translate the Hebrew here as a rhetorical questionwith an affirmative idea: “And indeed, by my name Yahweh did Inot make myself known to them?”). God then proceeds to outlinethe redemptive experience in its fullness: deliverance from bondage,reception into a covenant relationship, and possession of the landpromised to their ancestors (vv. 6–8). The statement isbracketed with this declaration: “I am the Lord” (vv. 2,8). One stated purpose of this redemptive work is that Israel mightcome to understand this (v.7). This is important to notebecause a central theme of Exodus as a book is the identity of theGod of Israel. This concern prompts Moses to ask for God’s nameat the burning bush (3:13), and this contempt for the God of theenslaved Hebrews causes Pharaoh to be dismissive at his first meetingwith Moses and Aaron (5:2). Moses asks with the concern of a seekerand receives one of the most profound declarations of God’sidentity in the Bible. Pharaoh asks with the contempt of a scornerand receives one of the most powerful displays of God’sidentity in the Bible (the plagues). The contrast is both strikingand instructive. The meaning of God’s name, then, is revealedin works as well as words, and his purpose is that not just hispeople but all peoples may come to understand who he is. Yet anothermajestic statement in the book of Exodus (9:13–16) makes thisabundantly clear.

Basedon this pattern of usage, the name “Yahweh” seems tosignify especially the active presence of God to bless, deliver, orotherwise aid his people. Where this presence is absent, there is nosuccess, victory, protection, or peace (Num. 14:39–45; Josh.7:10–12; Judg. 16:20; 1Sam. 16:13–14). The messagethat God not only is but also is present to save and deliver may wellbe the most important truth communicated in the OT, and it is onlynatural to see its ultimate embodiment in the person and work ofChrist (Isa. 7:14; cf. Matt. 1:21–23).

Nameused in combination.The name “Yahweh” also is used in combination with otherterms. After God grants a military victory to Israel over theAmalekites, Moses names a commemorative altar “Yahweh Nissi,”meaning “the Lord is my Banner” (Exod. 17:15). InEzekiel’s temple vision Jerusalem is called “YahwehShammah,” meaning “the Lord is there” (Ezek.48:35). A familiar expression is “the Lord of hosts,”which is generally comparable to the expression “commander inchief” used in American culture (cf. 1Kings 22:19–23).

Elohim

Thisis the first term for God encountered in the Bible, right in theopening verse. It is a more generic term, denoting deity in contrastto humans or angels. “Elohim” is a plural form; thesingular terms “El” and “Eloah” are usedoccasionally, particularly in poetic texts. “El” is acommon term in the biblical world; in fact, it is the name for thefather of Baal in the Canaanite religion. This may explain why theBible commonly uses the plural form, to distinguish the one true God,the God of Israel, from his pagan rivals. Others explain the pluralform as a “plural of majesty” or “plural ofintensity,” though it is uncertain just what this would mean.Some see the foundation for NT revelation of the Trinity (Gen.1:26–27; 11:6–7; cf. John 17:20–22), but this isunlikely. The plural form also can serve simply as a common noun,referring to pagan deities (Exod. 12:12), angels (Ps. 97:7,arguably), or even human authorities (Exod. 22:28, possibly).

“El”also occurs in combination with other descriptive terms. The bestknown is “El Shaddai,” meaning “God Almighty”(Gen. 17:1). The precise meaning of “Shaddai” isuncertain, but it seems to have the notion of “great/powerfulone.” The distressed Hagar, caught, comforted, and counseled bythe mysterious personage at a well, calls God “El Roi,”which means “the God who sees me” (Gen. 16:13). One ofthe most exalted expressions to describe God is “El Elyon,”meaning “God Most High.” This title seems to haveparticular reference to God as the owner and master of creation (Gen.14:18–20).

Adonai

Asnoted above, this common word meaning simply “(my) lord/master”is used regularly in place of the personal name of God revealed toMoses in Exod. 3:14. And in the OT of most English Bibles this isindicated by printing “Lord” as opposed to “Lord”(using small capital letters). However, “Adonai” is usedof God in some noteworthy instances, such as Isaiah’s loftyvision of God exalted in Isa. 6 and the prophecy of Immanuel in Isa.7:14. In time, this became the preferred term for referring to God,and the LXX reflected this by using the Greek word kyrios (“lord”)for Yahweh. This makes the ease with which NT writers transfer theuse of the term to Jesus (e.g., 1Cor. 12:3) a strong indicationof their Christology.

The biblical site of Gaza is located at Tell Harube/Tell’Azza, which is beneath the modern Palestinian city of Gaza. Itis strategically situated in southern Palestine near the Egyptianborder and is approximately three miles from the Mediterranean Sea.Initial excavations were led by W.J. Phythian-Adams in 1922under the auspices of the Palestine Exploration Fund. Additionalexcavations were directed by Asher Ovadiah in 1967 and 1976.

Inthe Late Bronze Age (1550–1200 BC), Gaza was under the controlof Egypt. It is first mentioned in the annals of ThutmoseIII asthe provincial capital of Canaan, and it functioned as an Egyptianadministrative center in the Amarna and Taanach letters. At thebeginning of the Iron Age (1200 BC), the Sea Peoples (especially thePhilistines) took control of this coastal region. This scenario isreflected in Deut. 2:23, which states that the Caphtorites (i.e., thePhilistines) displaced the Avvites. Joshua 11:22 also states thatafter the Israelite conquest, the giant Anakim only remained in Gaza,Gath, and Ashdod (they were most likely assimilated into Philistineculture, perhaps as mercenaries). These three cities, along withEkron and Ashkelon, comprise the Philistine Pentapolis (Josh. 13:3;1Sam. 6:17–18). The Pentapolis remained unconquered atthe end of Joshua’s life (Josh. 13:3), even though Ekron,Ashdod, and Gaza were included in Judah’s allotment (15:45–47).The Judahites took brief control of Gaza, Ashkelon, and Ekron, whichthey were unable to maintain due to the Philistines’ employmentof “iron chariots” on the plains (Judg. 1:18–19).During the period of the judges, Gaza is prominently featured in theexploits of Samson. The city is described as having a gate and amultistoried temple (Judg. 16:1–3, 26). After David’sconquests of the Philistines, King Solomon is said to have dominionover a vast region including Gaza (1Kings 4:24). In the secondhalf of the eighth century BC, Gaza became an Assyrian vassal (underTiglath-pileserIII). King Hezekiah also briefly subdued theregion (2Kings 18:8), but Gaza remained an Assyrian vassaluntil the end of the seventh century, when the city was brieflyoccupied by Pharaoh NechoII and then fell to Nebuchadnezzar(see Jer. 47:1–2, 5). Gaza is mentioned in a number ofprophetic oracles against Philistia (Jer. 25:20; 47:1; Amos 1:6–7;Zeph. 2:4; Zech. 9:5). It appears only one time in the NT, whenPhilip is traveling toward Gaza and encounters the Ethiopian eunuch(Acts 8:26).

In the ancient Near East the type of cooking and heating utilized within a household depended upon the family’s socioeconomic status and lifestyle. A nomadic or seminomadic pastoral lifestyle demanded portability; permanent ovens or heating installations would have been impractical. A stable urban lifestyle made possible the construction of more complex heating and cooking equipment.

Cooking within the Seminomadic Lifestyle

Seminomadic groups, such as Abraham and his family or the Israelites before the settlement of Canaan, probably used an open fire or fire pit. A campfire was kindled on top of the ground or on flat stones. An open fire of this nature could also be ringed with a small stone circle. Shallow holes or fire pits were also dug into the ground near the front of a tent or outside, in the encampment. Since tents did not have chimneys, the smoke from a fire would escape through the door. The seasonal climate dictated whether a fire was kindled inside or outside the tent.

Fires were ignited with twigs or kindling by friction or sparks (Isa. 50:11; 64:2; 2 Macc. 10:3), a skill learned during the early Stone Age. Once lit, the burning embers of the fire could be moved around, kept smoldering, and fanned into a blaze with fresh fuel (Isa. 30:14; cf. Lev. 6:13). Abraham carried some type of an ember or fire with him when he went to sacrifice Isaac (Gen. 22:6). The “smoking firepot with a blazing torch” that symbolized God’s presence before Abraham may refer to a portable device for transporting fire (15:17).

Fuel for fire was gathered from the materials most readily available to seminomadic groups. Potential fuels included thorns and briers (Isa. 10:17), dried grass (Matt. 6:30; Luke 12:28), charcoal (John 18:18 NRSV), twigs or sticks (Isa. 64:2), wood (Gen. 22:6), and dried animal dung (Ezek. 4:15). Fire pits provided some means for keeping a family warm, as well as being used for cooking.

Cooking within the Urban Lifestyle

The sedentary urban lifestyle of the monarchial period provided the opportunity to construct permanent cooking and heating installations. In the four-room Israelite house, cooking normally was done in a fire pit or clay oven in the courtyard of the home. The baking oven ordinarily was located outside, but archaeologists have found cooking utensils and ovens in the central room of the house. This indoor oven also served as a means of heat during the colder wet season. The family most likely utilized the courtyard oven during the hotter dry season.

Egyptian and Mesopotamian reliefs provide illustrations of the structure of ancient ovens. Archaeologists have uncovered scores of examples of different types and sizes all across the ancient Near East. Small domestic ovens (Exod. 8:3) were made of clay in two basic forms. The first had an open top and was cylindrical in shape. It ranged from two to three feet in height and was about two feet in diameter. The second, about the same size, was more egg-shaped, with small openings at the base and in the top.

Some ovens were covered with a plastered layer of potsherds on the outside to improve insulation. They could be embedded in the ground or raised above it. The oven floor was lined with pebbles, and the fire was built upon it. Commercial ovens were larger and were concentrated in specific areas of a city (Neh. 3:11; 12:38).

Ovens and fire pits were used for cooking and heating in the home. Other hearths or heating ovens were employed to warm larger buildings or to perform specific tasks not related to food preparation. A large oval hearth was discovered in the central room of an Iron Age II house at Shechem. Jeremiah 36:22–23 speaks about a “firepot” or hearth used by Jehoiakim to warm his winter apartment. This hearth may have been a raised copper or bronze basin on a three-legged stand. A “fire basin” (NIV: “firepot”) is also mentioned in Zech. 12:6.

Cooking Utensils

Many types of pottery utensils, which were undoubtedly associated with cooking and eating, have been discovered in archaeological excavations in the ancient Near East. Although rare, metal and stone implements have also been found. One area in the tent or the home would be employed as a “kitchen.” A kitchen in the palace of Ramesses III is depicted on an Egyptian wall, and Ezekiel mentions the kitchens located in the new temple (46:24). Cooking and serving vessels included platters, bowls, chalices, jugs, juglets, and cooking pots. Storage vessels and grain pits also were needed to contain spices, oils, grains, and other foodstuffs.

Larger bowls designed specifically for cooking were in common use during the Bronze and Iron Ages. These “cooking pots” often were placed directly into the fire or on hot coals and were used to boil meat or make soups and other similar types of food. Iron Age II cooking pots from Palestine generally bore the trademark of the potter. Cooking pots had a short life and were replaced often. Because the style of these types of pots changed systematically over time, they have become very important in helping archaeologists date the particular level or stratum of a tell in which they were found.

The Cooking of Food

The type of food eaten by families also depended on their socioeconomic status and lifestyle. Food staples included milk products, wine, bread, and occasionally meat. Richer families could afford vegetables, fruits, dates, figs, and other less common foods. All types of households ate bread.

Grains. The most common grains used in bread making were wheat, barley, and spelt (Isa. 28:25). Wheat grew wild in Palestine, and there is evidence that seminomadic people stayed in one place long enough to cultivate small plots of grain. Grain could also be acquired in trade for other agricultural products such as goat’s milk or wool. Grain was winnowed to separate the chaff from the kernels (Matt. 3:12; Luke 3:17). Roasted grain was grain that had been “popped” in the fire instead of being milled (1 Sam. 25:18).

After being winnowed, wheat and other grains were ground initially in a hand mill. Hand mills, or querns, were of two types. The first was a simple device of two stones. The base, or “saddle,” was a flat, elongated stone that became curved through the backward and forward motion of the upper stone. The upper, or “rider,” stone was flat on one side and curved on the top to allow the user to grip the stone with both hands. The grain was placed on the saddle, and the rider stone was run repeatedly over it to grind it. This was considered menial work (Lam. 5:13). This type of grinding may have been assigned to the blinded Samson (Judg. 16:21).

The second, later type of hand mill consisted of two stone disks approximately twelve inches in diameter. The lower stone, or base, had an upright wooden stake at the center. A hole in the upper stone allowed it to fit over the base, and a handle on the upper stone was used to rotate it against the lower stone (Matt. 24:41). Grain was fed through the central hole, and the milled flour exited along the sides. The millstone mentioned in Matt. 18:6; Mark 9:42; Luke 17:2 is a larger example of this type.

Milling grain was a necessary task of the household (Jer. 25:10). Course grain was further milled into fine flour with a mortar and pestle. Course grain could be used to make boiled porridge or gruel. Finely ground flour was used in sacrificial offerings (Exod. 29:40; Lev. 2:4).

The flour was mixed with water and kneaded (Gen. 18:6; 1 Sam. 28:24; 2 Sam. 13:8; Jer. 7:18), small amounts of leaven and salt were added, and then the bread was baked. Three methods of baking bread are mentioned in the OT: over hot coals (1 Kings 19:6; Isa. 44:19), on a griddle (Lev. 7:9; cf. Ezek. 4:3), and in an oven (Lev. 26:26). Leaven was withheld from the dough if the bread was to be made and eaten in haste (Exod. 12:39; Judg. 6:19; 1 Sam. 28:24). Griddle “cakes” were also made in this fashion (Hos. 7:8; cf. Ezek. 4:12).

Bread often was baked in different shapes. Thin bread was used to scoop food from a common pot (Matt. 26:23). Other breads were formed into loaves (John 6:9). In one man’s dream a round loaf of barley bread is described as rolling down a hill and striking and overturning a tent (Judg. 7:13). Both men and women baked bread (Gen. 19:3; 1 Sam. 28:24), and priests baked bread for ritual usage (Lev. 24:5). A king could afford to have men and women as professional bakers (Gen. 40:1; 1 Sam. 8:13). Professional bakers may also have served the larger urban population (Neh. 3:11; Jer. 37:21; Hos. 7:4) in Jerusalem.

Fruits and vegetables. After settling in Canaan, the Israelites made some additions to their diet. Foodstuffs grown in cultivated gardens were now available. These included foods such as cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, and garlic (Num. 11:5). Some of these vegetables were added to stews; others were eaten uncooked. Vegetable, bean, and lentil soups were prepared in large cooking pots placed directly on the fire. Esau particularly enjoyed lentil soup (Gen. 25:30). Herbs and spices (mint, dill, and cumin) were now accessible as well (Isa. 28:25, 27; Matt. 23:23). Salt came from the Dead Sea.

Fruits too were grown and harvested. Of particular interest was the olive. Olives were crushed in a press to render oil. Olive oil was used in cooking and baking. It was mixed with fine flour to make bread (1 Kings 17:12; Ezek. 16:13; cf. Num. 11:8).

Meat. When a guest arrived or when a special occasion called for it, meat was added to the stew. Meat often was boiled (2 Kings 4:38; Ezek. 24:3–5). Spices were also added (Ezek. 24:10). Since the meat was cut up to boil, this method had the advantage of avoiding the problem of ensuring that the blood was properly drained out of an animal before it could be roasted (Lev. 17:10–11). Milk could be used in the stew; however, cooking a kid in its mother’s milk was prohibited (Exod. 23:19; 34:26; Deut. 14:21).

Meat was roasted over an open fire on a spit. Meat was available from flocks and through hunting. Abraham served his guests veal (Gen. 18:7); Gideon and his guests ate goat meat (Judg. 6:19); Samuel appears to have served Saul a mutton leg (1 Sam. 9:24). Contrary to ritual regulations, Hophni and Phinehas demanded meat for roasting (1 Sam. 2:13–15). Meat certainly was roasted as a sacrifice on the altar of the tabernacle and the temple. It also normally was roasted on feast days such as Passover (Exod. 12:8–9).

Fish were counted among the foods given to Noah and his sons after the flood (Gen. 9:2–3). The Israelites ate fish in Egypt (Num. 11:15), and fishermen plied their trade along the Nile (Isa. 19:8). Fishermen could hook, spear, or net fish (Job 41:1, 7; Eccles. 9:12; Ezek. 29:4; 47:10). In Israel, fish were taken from the Sea of Galilee or the Mediterranean. Jerusalem had a “Fish Gate,” where fish were sold (2 Chron. 33:14; Neh. 3:3; 12:39; Zeph. 1:10). The Phoenicians most likely exported several varieties of edible fish to Israel. Fish with fins and scales were clean, but those without fins or scales were not (Lev. 11:9–12). In Nehemiah’s day Phoenicians were selling fish to the inhabitants of Jerusalem even on the Sabbath (Neh. 13:16).

In NT times, the Phoenicians continued to import much of the fish brought into Palestine. The ministry of Jesus revolved around the smaller fishing industry on the Sea of Galilee. Jesus called several fishermen to follow him as disciples (Matt. 4:18). On a number of occasions Jesus helped his disciples to ply their trade by directing them where to cast their nets (John 21:6, 11). Fish were caught in dragnets (John 21:8) and hand nets (Matt. 4:18). After his resurrection Jesus ate fish with his disciples in Jerusalem and on the Sea of Galilee (Luke 24:42; John 21:9).

Fish became a staple of the common people (Matt. 14:17; 15:34). The fish used to feed the multitudes probably were salted. Fish normally were grilled over an open fire (John 21:9).

In the OT, humility often refers to people of low socialstatus, the disenfranchised, and those who suffer oppression andpoverty (e.g., Prov. 22:22–23; Amos 2:7; Zech. 7:10). Suchpeople often are referred to as the ’anawim (e.g., Ps. 9:12,18; Isa. 32:7; 61:1; Amos 2:7; 8:4). The Hebrew word ’anah isfrequently translated by the English words “oppress” and“afflict.” The word denotes the sexual humiliation ofwomen (Gen. 31:50; Ezek. 22:10–11), military oppression (Judg.16:5–6, 19), and oppression that comes with slavery (Gen.15:13; Exod. 1:12; Deut. 26:6). As a social status, humility issynonymous with those marginalized by society.

Scripturesometimes associates those socially marginalized with the ethicaldimension of humility, thus making the social status equivalent to asubjective spiritual quality (Pss. 22:26; 37:11–17; 146:7–9;Zeph. 3:11–13). Social humiliation, however, does notnecessarily lead to humility as a virtue. In a number of instances inthe OT, the two remain distinct. In its subjective quality, humilityinvolves submission to one in authority, usually to God (Exod. 10:3;Deut. 8:2–3, 16; Ps. 119:67, 71, 75). On some occasionshumility is related to the act of repentance before God (e.g., Zeph.2:1–3). When paired with “fear of the Lord,”humility implies a person who lives in a posture of pious submissionbefore God (Prov. 15:31–33; 22:4).

Suchis the case with Moses, whom the writer of Numbers describes in thefollowing way: “Now Moses was a very humble man, more humblethan anyone else on the face of the earth” (Num. 12:3). Moses’humility in this situation is displayed in his intimate relationshipwith, and by his submissive attitude toward, the sovereign God(12:4–9).

Inthe NT, Christians take Christ as their model of humility (Matt.11:29; Phil. 2:6–11). The NT writers also call on Christians tohumble themselves before God (James 4:10; 1Pet. 5:5–6) aswell as others, including their enemies (Rom. 12:14–21; Phil.2:3).

Imprisonmentof Criminals

Incomparing modern society to that of biblical times, it is importantto acknowledge what is distinctive about prisons in many modernsocieties. Prisons serve multiple functions, including imposingincarceration as punishment for crimes committed, segregatingdangerous criminals from the larger population, deterring crime byimposing a negative incentive, and rehabilitating offenders so thatthey can eventually return to society. In many cases where modern lawimposes incarceration as the penalty for crime, ancient and biblicallaw imposed economic penalties (such as fines), corporal punishment(beatings), and capital punishment (death). In addition, many of thebiblical references to prisons and prisoners involve what in modernsociety would be considered political rather than criminalincarceration.

Thestory of Joseph prominently features an Egyptian prison. Joseph wasfalsely put in prison for the crime of molesting his master’swife (Gen. 39:19–20), while his companions were imprisoned forthe otherwise unspecified crime of causing offense to the king(40:1). As this story illustrates, the sentences were not of apredetermined duration, and release depended on the goodwill of theking (Gen. 40:13), a situation in which Paul also found himselfhundreds of years later during Roman times (Acts 24:27). When Josephimprisoned his brothers, it was on a presumption of guilt for thecrime of espionage (Gen. 42:16). In Roman times, in contrast, certainprisoners had a right to be put on trial eventually, if not quickly(Acts 25:27; see also 16:37). Imprisonment could also be imposed forfailure to pay a debt (Matt. 18:30). Joseph kept Simeon in prison asa guarantee that his brothers would fulfill a prior agreement (Gen.42:19, 24). In addition to specialized dungeons, prisoners could alsobe confined in houses (Jer. 37:15; Acts 28:16) and pits (Zech. 9:11).

PoliticalImprisonment

Ina number of biblical stories individuals are imprisoned for what wewould today describe as political or ideological reasons. Samson wasimprisoned by the Philistines in retaliation for the havoc that hehad wreaked in their land and probably to prevent further incidents(Judg. 16:21). While in prison, Samson was enslaved. SeveralIsraelite and Judean kings were imprisoned by their Mesopotamianoverlords for offenses ranging from failure to pay taxes to revolt,including Hoshea (2Kings 17:4), Jehoiachin (2Kings25:27–29), Manasseh (2Chron. 33:11), and Zedekiah (Jer.52:11). In some cases, the imprisonment of such elites was brutal andinvolved torture (2Chron. 33:11; Jer. 52:11), though Jehoiachinwas later released from prison and allowed to live out his captivityin some comfort (2Kings 25:27–29).

Inthe NT, individuals were also imprisoned for such crimes. Barabbaswas imprisoned by the Roman government of Judea for participating inan insurrection (Mark 15:7). Saul of Tarsus imprisoned a number ofChristians, apparently without what we would today recognize as anycriminal offense (Acts 8:3). Peter was imprisoned by Herod forpolitical gain (Acts 12:4). Paul and Silas were imprisoned fordisturbing the peace of Philippi (Acts 16:23).

Imprisonmentof Prophets

Aspecial case of political incarceration is the imprisonment ofprophets. From the point of view of the biblical writers, prophetswere imprisoned for speaking the truth to a powerful person who didnot want to hear it. From the point of view of those in power,imprisoning dissenters was an important way of suppressing opinionsthat could undermine the regime. In some cases, the imprisonment ofdissenters or troublemakers was a prelude to execution (John theBaptist and Jesus). The practice of imprisonment instead of immediateexecution may reflect the ambivalent attitude of rulers towardcontroversial prophets: they could not be allowed to move aboutfreely in society, but they had some status or right as prophet thatprevented their execution. In some cases, prophets managed toconfront a king without being punished, suggesting that there was acertain level of tolerance for them even when they were notsupportive of royal power, a tolerance that might have contributed tothe use of imprisonment instead of execution.

Ahabimprisoned Micaiah son of Imlah after he delivered an unfavorableoracle (1Kings 22:27). Similarly, Asa imprisoned Hanani theseer (2Chron. 16:10). These kings may have hoped that suchtreatment would coerce better news in the future. Jeremiah (Jer.37:15) and John the Baptist (Mark 6:17) were also imprisoned fordelivering unwelcome messages to those in power.

TheologicalSignificance

Inboth Testaments, release from prison is a symbol of God’ssalvation. The theme is prominent in the psalms, as in Ps. 146:7:“The Lord sets prisoners free” (see also Pss. 68:6;107:10; 142:7). In Acts 12:7 Peter is freed from prison by a divinelysent messenger. Paul wrote a number of letters from prison andidentified himself as a prisoner of Christ (Eph. 3:1; Col. 4:10;2Tim. 1:8; Philem. 1). Some texts refer in mythological termsto a prison that confines spirits or Satan (1Pet. 3:19; Rev.20:7).

Imprisonmentof Criminals

Incomparing modern society to that of biblical times, it is importantto acknowledge what is distinctive about prisons in many modernsocieties. Prisons serve multiple functions, including imposingincarceration as punishment for crimes committed, segregatingdangerous criminals from the larger population, deterring crime byimposing a negative incentive, and rehabilitating offenders so thatthey can eventually return to society. In many cases where modern lawimposes incarceration as the penalty for crime, ancient and biblicallaw imposed economic penalties (such as fines), corporal punishment(beatings), and capital punishment (death). In addition, many of thebiblical references to prisons and prisoners involve what in modernsociety would be considered political rather than criminalincarceration.

Thestory of Joseph prominently features an Egyptian prison. Joseph wasfalsely put in prison for the crime of molesting his master’swife (Gen. 39:19–20), while his companions were imprisoned forthe otherwise unspecified crime of causing offense to the king(40:1). As this story illustrates, the sentences were not of apredetermined duration, and release depended on the goodwill of theking (Gen. 40:13), a situation in which Paul also found himselfhundreds of years later during Roman times (Acts 24:27). When Josephimprisoned his brothers, it was on a presumption of guilt for thecrime of espionage (Gen. 42:16). In Roman times, in contrast, certainprisoners had a right to be put on trial eventually, if not quickly(Acts 25:27; see also 16:37). Imprisonment could also be imposed forfailure to pay a debt (Matt. 18:30). Joseph kept Simeon in prison asa guarantee that his brothers would fulfill a prior agreement (Gen.42:19, 24). In addition to specialized dungeons, prisoners could alsobe confined in houses (Jer. 37:15; Acts 28:16) and pits (Zech. 9:11).

PoliticalImprisonment

Ina number of biblical stories individuals are imprisoned for what wewould today describe as political or ideological reasons. Samson wasimprisoned by the Philistines in retaliation for the havoc that hehad wreaked in their land and probably to prevent further incidents(Judg. 16:21). While in prison, Samson was enslaved. SeveralIsraelite and Judean kings were imprisoned by their Mesopotamianoverlords for offenses ranging from failure to pay taxes to revolt,including Hoshea (2Kings 17:4), Jehoiachin (2Kings25:27–29), Manasseh (2Chron. 33:11), and Zedekiah (Jer.52:11). In some cases, the imprisonment of such elites was brutal andinvolved torture (2Chron. 33:11; Jer. 52:11), though Jehoiachinwas later released from prison and allowed to live out his captivityin some comfort (2Kings 25:27–29).

Inthe NT, individuals were also imprisoned for such crimes. Barabbaswas imprisoned by the Roman government of Judea for participating inan insurrection (Mark 15:7). Saul of Tarsus imprisoned a number ofChristians, apparently without what we would today recognize as anycriminal offense (Acts 8:3). Peter was imprisoned by Herod forpolitical gain (Acts 12:4). Paul and Silas were imprisoned fordisturbing the peace of Philippi (Acts 16:23).

Imprisonmentof Prophets

Aspecial case of political incarceration is the imprisonment ofprophets. From the point of view of the biblical writers, prophetswere imprisoned for speaking the truth to a powerful person who didnot want to hear it. From the point of view of those in power,imprisoning dissenters was an important way of suppressing opinionsthat could undermine the regime. In some cases, the imprisonment ofdissenters or troublemakers was a prelude to execution (John theBaptist and Jesus). The practice of imprisonment instead of immediateexecution may reflect the ambivalent attitude of rulers towardcontroversial prophets: they could not be allowed to move aboutfreely in society, but they had some status or right as prophet thatprevented their execution. In some cases, prophets managed toconfront a king without being punished, suggesting that there was acertain level of tolerance for them even when they were notsupportive of royal power, a tolerance that might have contributed tothe use of imprisonment instead of execution.

Ahabimprisoned Micaiah son of Imlah after he delivered an unfavorableoracle (1Kings 22:27). Similarly, Asa imprisoned Hanani theseer (2Chron. 16:10). These kings may have hoped that suchtreatment would coerce better news in the future. Jeremiah (Jer.37:15) and John the Baptist (Mark 6:17) were also imprisoned fordelivering unwelcome messages to those in power.

TheologicalSignificance

Inboth Testaments, release from prison is a symbol of God’ssalvation. The theme is prominent in the psalms, as in Ps. 146:7:“The Lord sets prisoners free” (see also Pss. 68:6;107:10; 142:7). In Acts 12:7 Peter is freed from prison by a divinelysent messenger. Paul wrote a number of letters from prison andidentified himself as a prisoner of Christ (Eph. 3:1; Col. 4:10;2Tim. 1:8; Philem. 1). Some texts refer in mythological termsto a prison that confines spirits or Satan (1Pet. 3:19; Rev.20:7).

Imprisonmentof Criminals

Incomparing modern society to that of biblical times, it is importantto acknowledge what is distinctive about prisons in many modernsocieties. Prisons serve multiple functions, including imposingincarceration as punishment for crimes committed, segregatingdangerous criminals from the larger population, deterring crime byimposing a negative incentive, and rehabilitating offenders so thatthey can eventually return to society. In many cases where modern lawimposes incarceration as the penalty for crime, ancient and biblicallaw imposed economic penalties (such as fines), corporal punishment(beatings), and capital punishment (death). In addition, many of thebiblical references to prisons and prisoners involve what in modernsociety would be considered political rather than criminalincarceration.

Thestory of Joseph prominently features an Egyptian prison. Joseph wasfalsely put in prison for the crime of molesting his master’swife (Gen. 39:19–20), while his companions were imprisoned forthe otherwise unspecified crime of causing offense to the king(40:1). As this story illustrates, the sentences were not of apredetermined duration, and release depended on the goodwill of theking (Gen. 40:13), a situation in which Paul also found himselfhundreds of years later during Roman times (Acts 24:27). When Josephimprisoned his brothers, it was on a presumption of guilt for thecrime of espionage (Gen. 42:16). In Roman times, in contrast, certainprisoners had a right to be put on trial eventually, if not quickly(Acts 25:27; see also 16:37). Imprisonment could also be imposed forfailure to pay a debt (Matt. 18:30). Joseph kept Simeon in prison asa guarantee that his brothers would fulfill a prior agreement (Gen.42:19, 24). In addition to specialized dungeons, prisoners could alsobe confined in houses (Jer. 37:15; Acts 28:16) and pits (Zech. 9:11).

PoliticalImprisonment

Ina number of biblical stories individuals are imprisoned for what wewould today describe as political or ideological reasons. Samson wasimprisoned by the Philistines in retaliation for the havoc that hehad wreaked in their land and probably to prevent further incidents(Judg. 16:21). While in prison, Samson was enslaved. SeveralIsraelite and Judean kings were imprisoned by their Mesopotamianoverlords for offenses ranging from failure to pay taxes to revolt,including Hoshea (2Kings 17:4), Jehoiachin (2Kings25:27–29), Manasseh (2Chron. 33:11), and Zedekiah (Jer.52:11). In some cases, the imprisonment of such elites was brutal andinvolved torture (2Chron. 33:11; Jer. 52:11), though Jehoiachinwas later released from prison and allowed to live out his captivityin some comfort (2Kings 25:27–29).

Inthe NT, individuals were also imprisoned for such crimes. Barabbaswas imprisoned by the Roman government of Judea for participating inan insurrection (Mark 15:7). Saul of Tarsus imprisoned a number ofChristians, apparently without what we would today recognize as anycriminal offense (Acts 8:3). Peter was imprisoned by Herod forpolitical gain (Acts 12:4). Paul and Silas were imprisoned fordisturbing the peace of Philippi (Acts 16:23).

Imprisonmentof Prophets

Aspecial case of political incarceration is the imprisonment ofprophets. From the point of view of the biblical writers, prophetswere imprisoned for speaking the truth to a powerful person who didnot want to hear it. From the point of view of those in power,imprisoning dissenters was an important way of suppressing opinionsthat could undermine the regime. In some cases, the imprisonment ofdissenters or troublemakers was a prelude to execution (John theBaptist and Jesus). The practice of imprisonment instead of immediateexecution may reflect the ambivalent attitude of rulers towardcontroversial prophets: they could not be allowed to move aboutfreely in society, but they had some status or right as prophet thatprevented their execution. In some cases, prophets managed toconfront a king without being punished, suggesting that there was acertain level of tolerance for them even when they were notsupportive of royal power, a tolerance that might have contributed tothe use of imprisonment instead of execution.

Ahabimprisoned Micaiah son of Imlah after he delivered an unfavorableoracle (1Kings 22:27). Similarly, Asa imprisoned Hanani theseer (2Chron. 16:10). These kings may have hoped that suchtreatment would coerce better news in the future. Jeremiah (Jer.37:15) and John the Baptist (Mark 6:17) were also imprisoned fordelivering unwelcome messages to those in power.

TheologicalSignificance

Inboth Testaments, release from prison is a symbol of God’ssalvation. The theme is prominent in the psalms, as in Ps. 146:7:“The Lord sets prisoners free” (see also Pss. 68:6;107:10; 142:7). In Acts 12:7 Peter is freed from prison by a divinelysent messenger. Paul wrote a number of letters from prison andidentified himself as a prisoner of Christ (Eph. 3:1; Col. 4:10;2Tim. 1:8; Philem. 1). Some texts refer in mythological termsto a prison that confines spirits or Satan (1Pet. 3:19; Rev.20:7).

The names of God given in the Bible are an important means ofrevelation about his character and works. The names come from threesources: God himself, those who encounter him in the biblical record,and the biblical writers. This article is concerned mainly with thenames that occur in the OT, though the NT will be referenced whenhelpful.

Inthe Bible the meaning of names is often significant and points to thecharacter of the person so named. As might be expected, this isespecially true for God. The names that he gives to himself alwaysare a form of revelation; the names that humans give to God often area form of testimony.

Yahweh:The Lord

Pronunciation.Unquestionably, for OT revelation the most important name is “(the)Lord.” In English Bibles this represents the name declared byGod to Moses at the burning bush (“I am who I am” [Exod.3:13–15]) and the related term used elsewhere in the OT; inHebrew this term consists of the four consonants YHWH and istherefore known as the Tetragrammaton (“four letters”).Hebrew does not count vowels as part of its alphabet; in biblicaltimes one simply wrote the consonants of a word and the readersupplied the correct vowels by knowing the vocabulary, grammar, andcontext. However, to avoid violating the commandment in the Decaloguethat prohibits the misuse of God’s name (Exod. 20:7; Deut.5:11), the Jews stopped pronouncing it. Consequently, no one todayknows its correct original pronunciation, but the best evidenceavailable suggests “Yahweh,” which has become theconventional pronunciation (consider the Hebrew word “hallelujah,”which actually is “hallelu-Yah,” hence “praise theLord”). In ancient Jewish tradition, “Adonai” (“myLord”) was substituted for “Yahweh.” In fact, whenHebrew eventually developed a vowel notation system, instead of thevowels for “Yahweh,” the vowels for “Adonai”were indicated whenever YHWH appeared in the biblical text, as areminder. Combining the consonants YHWH with the vowels of “Adonai”yields something like “Yehowah,” which is the origin ofthe familiar (but mistaken and nonexistent) “Jehovah.”English Bibles typically use “Lord” (small capitalletters) for “Yahweh,” and “Lord” (regularletters) for “Adonai,” which distinguishes thetwo.

Meaning.More vital than the matter of the pronunciation of YHWH is thequestion of its meaning. There seem to be two main opinions. One seesYHWH as denoting eternal self-existence, partly because it issuggested by the grammar of Exod. 3:14 (the words “I am”use a form of the Hebrew verb that suggests being without beginningor end) and partly because that is the meaning Jesus apparentlyascribes to it in John 8:58. The other opinion, suggested by usage,is that YHWH indicates dynamic, active, divine presence: God’sbeing present in a special way to act on someone’s behalf(e.g., Gen. 26:28; 39:2–3; Josh. 6:27; 1Sam. 18:12–14).This idea also appears in the episode of the burning bush (Exod.3:12): when Moses protests his inadequacy to confront Pharaoh, Godassures him of his presence, a reality noted with other prophets(1Sam. 3:19; Jer. 1:8).

Perhapsthe best points of reference for understanding the meaning of YHWHare God’s own proclamations. In addition to Exod. 3:13–15,at least two other passages in Exodus give God’s commentary (asit were) about the meaning of his name. An important one is Exod.34:5–7. A key passage in the theology proper of ancient Israel,its themes echo in later OT Scripture (Num. 14:18–19; Ps.103:7–12; Jon. 4:2). What is noteworthy about the texts citedis that all of them say something remarkable about the grace of God.This fits, for the revelation of Exod. 34:5–7 is given in thecontext of covenant renewal after the incident of the golden calf.Moses invokes God’s name in the Numbers text to avoidcatastrophic judgment when the Israelites refuse to enter thepromised land. The psalm text picks up this theme and connects itwith God’s revelation of his ways to the chosen people. Jonah,remarkably, affirms that the same grace extends even toward a wickedGentile city such as Nineveh.

Anothersuch passage is Exod. 6:2–8.Here God reaffirms hisredemptive purpose for captive Israel, despite the fact that Moses’first encounter with Pharaoh has not gone well. God assures theprophet that he has remembered his covenant with the patriarchs, whomhe says did not know him as “Yahweh,” which probablymeans that the patriarchs did not experience him in the way orcharacter that their descendants would in the exodus event (though itis possible to translate the Hebrew here as a rhetorical questionwith an affirmative idea: “And indeed, by my name Yahweh did Inot make myself known to them?”). God then proceeds to outlinethe redemptive experience in its fullness: deliverance from bondage,reception into a covenant relationship, and possession of the landpromised to their ancestors (vv. 6–8). The statement isbracketed with this declaration: “I am the Lord” (vv. 2,8). One stated purpose of this redemptive work is that Israel mightcome to understand this (v.7). This is important to notebecause a central theme of Exodus as a book is the identity of theGod of Israel. This concern prompts Moses to ask for God’s nameat the burning bush (3:13), and this contempt for the God of theenslaved Hebrews causes Pharaoh to be dismissive at his first meetingwith Moses and Aaron (5:2). Moses asks with the concern of a seekerand receives one of the most profound declarations of God’sidentity in the Bible. Pharaoh asks with the contempt of a scornerand receives one of the most powerful displays of God’sidentity in the Bible (the plagues). The contrast is both strikingand instructive. The meaning of God’s name, then, is revealedin works as well as words, and his purpose is that not just hispeople but all peoples may come to understand who he is. Yet anothermajestic statement in the book of Exodus (9:13–16) makes thisabundantly clear.

Basedon this pattern of usage, the name “Yahweh” seems tosignify especially the active presence of God to bless, deliver, orotherwise aid his people. Where this presence is absent, there is nosuccess, victory, protection, or peace (Num. 14:39–45; Josh.7:10–12; Judg. 16:20; 1Sam. 16:13–14). The messagethat God not only is but also is present to save and deliver may wellbe the most important truth communicated in the OT, and it is onlynatural to see its ultimate embodiment in the person and work ofChrist (Isa. 7:14; cf. Matt. 1:21–23).

Nameused in combination.The name “Yahweh” also is used in combination with otherterms. After God grants a military victory to Israel over theAmalekites, Moses names a commemorative altar “Yahweh Nissi,”meaning “the Lord is my Banner” (Exod. 17:15). InEzekiel’s temple vision Jerusalem is called “YahwehShammah,” meaning “the Lord is there” (Ezek.48:35). A familiar expression is “the Lord of hosts,”which is generally comparable to the expression “commander inchief” used in American culture (cf. 1Kings 22:19–23).

Elohim

Thisis the first term for God encountered in the Bible, right in theopening verse. It is a more generic term, denoting deity in contrastto humans or angels. “Elohim” is a plural form; thesingular terms “El” and “Eloah” are usedoccasionally, particularly in poetic texts. “El” is acommon term in the biblical world; in fact, it is the name for thefather of Baal in the Canaanite religion. This may explain why theBible commonly uses the plural form, to distinguish the one true God,the God of Israel, from his pagan rivals. Others explain the pluralform as a “plural of majesty” or “plural ofintensity,” though it is uncertain just what this would mean.Some see the foundation for NT revelation of the Trinity (Gen.1:26–27; 11:6–7; cf. John 17:20–22), but this isunlikely. The plural form also can serve simply as a common noun,referring to pagan deities (Exod. 12:12), angels (Ps. 97:7,arguably), or even human authorities (Exod. 22:28, possibly).

“El”also occurs in combination with other descriptive terms. The bestknown is “El Shaddai,” meaning “God Almighty”(Gen. 17:1). The precise meaning of “Shaddai” isuncertain, but it seems to have the notion of “great/powerfulone.” The distressed Hagar, caught, comforted, and counseled bythe mysterious personage at a well, calls God “El Roi,”which means “the God who sees me” (Gen. 16:13). One ofthe most exalted expressions to describe God is “El Elyon,”meaning “God Most High.” This title seems to haveparticular reference to God as the owner and master of creation (Gen.14:18–20).

Adonai

Asnoted above, this common word meaning simply “(my) lord/master”is used regularly in place of the personal name of God revealed toMoses in Exod. 3:14. And in the OT of most English Bibles this isindicated by printing “Lord” as opposed to “Lord”(using small capital letters). However, “Adonai” is usedof God in some noteworthy instances, such as Isaiah’s loftyvision of God exalted in Isa. 6 and the prophecy of Immanuel in Isa.7:14. In time, this became the preferred term for referring to God,and the LXX reflected this by using the Greek word kyrios (“lord”)for Yahweh. This makes the ease with which NT writers transfer theuse of the term to Jesus (e.g., 1Cor. 12:3) a strong indicationof their Christology.

One of several different types of stone implements used togrind grain, usually by hand. This chore was often performed daily,so the sound of mills grinding grain became a symbol of normal life(Jer. 25:10; Rev. 18:22). Women (Matt. 24:41) or servants (Exod.11:5) typically used mills, or prisoners, like Samson (Judg. 16:21),might be made to perform the mundane task.

Millsoften were small enough for one person to use. Apparently, the oldesttype of hand mill included a lower, concave stone made of basalt orother hard stone (Job 41:24). The person grinding rubbed a second,smaller, loaf-shaped upper millstone (Judg. 9:53) back and forth onthe lower one to grind the grain. Later mills had two circular slabs,and the user rotated the upper stone by a wooden peg attached as ahandle. Larger mills were also used in commercial operations. Alarge, well-carved double inverted cone was set on a cone-shapedlower stone. A pair of people or animals rotated the upper stone bypushing posts set into sockets. References to casting largemillstones into the sea (Matt. 18:6; Rev. 18:21) probably refer tosuch a large upper millstone.

The Bible contains many references to minerals and metals.Minerals can encompass a wide array of topics, thus the focus here ison valuable minerals such as ornamental stones as well as preciousand useful metals. Gold is mentioned in the Bible as early as thegarden of Eden (Gen. 2:11) and at the end is pictured as making upthe streets of the new Jerusalem (Rev. 21:21). Among the metalsmentioned in Scripture are gold, silver, bronze, copper, tin, lead,and iron. Precious stones and minerals also appear in Scripture,often used to adorn items, such as the high priest’sbreastpiece (Exod. 28:15–21). Here these materials will bediscussed in chronological order of appearance.

Copper

Copperwas the first metal to be used for simple farm tools and weapons. Itwas used as early as the middle of the fourth millennium BC but wasnot in widespread use until approximately 3300 BC. Copper mines havebeen found on the Sinai Peninsula at places such as the Timna Valleyand Faynan and also extensively on the island of Cyprus, whichsupplied copper to the Egyptian, Greek, and Roman empires.

Referencesto copper within the Bible are few. Several passages discuss thebasic origins of copper, such as the gathering of ore or the smeltingprocess (Deut. 8:9; Job 28:2; Ezek. 22:18, 20; 24:11). Several NTpassages acknowledge the presence of minted copper coins as currency(Matt. 10:9; Mark 12:42; Luke 21:2). Pure copper, however, was hardto use, although it could be combined with tin to make the alloybronze.

Bronze

Theuse of bronze, an alloy made of copper and tin, in biblical landsdates to about 2300 BC. Bronze, compared to pure copper, is easier towork with and has a longer life. It can be worked with hammer andanvil or poured into a mold. It has the same available applicationsas copper; thus it was used to make all the tools and weapons thatwere made of copper. Bronze was widely used during the secondmillennium BC, encompassing the biblical time period from Abraham tothe judges, and its use continued as the raw materials wereavailable. It was the metal of choice until the advanced technologyof ironworking.

Thefirst biblical reference to bronze is found in Gen. 4:22, in which weare told that Tubal-Cain forged tools out of bronze and iron. Next,bronze is mentioned in its use in the tabernacle built in the desert.Among the bronze items included were the many bronze clasps and basesfor the tent construction (Exod. 26:11, 37; 27:10–11, 17–19).The altar and all its utensils were made of, or overlaid with, bronze(27:1–8). God also instructed Moses to make a bronze basin forwashing (30:18). Moses also made a snake out of bronze and placed iton top of his staff when the Israelites were struck with an abundanceof venomous snakes (Num. 21:9). Samson was bound with shackles ofbronze (Judg. 16:21), and Goliath wore armor and carried weapons ofbronze (1Sam. 17:5–6). Solomon used an extensive amountof bronze in his building of the temple (2Kings 25:16), andthere was bronze in the statue that Daniel dreamed of (Dan. 2:32,35). Many of the prophets used bronze as a way to discuss somethingthat was to be strong or strengthened by God (Isa. 45:2; Jer. 1:18;Ezek. 40:3).

Ironand Steel

Ironoriginally was found in meteorites and thus was scarce and worked asa precious metal. After a permanent source of iron ore was found,iron began to be worked in a few areas around 1200 BC. It increasedin popularity over time, and around 1000 BC, or roughly the time ofthe united monarchy, it was being extensively used. Phoeniciantraders were very active during this time, and they would havebrought much iron from the mines of southern Spain. Around the tenthcentury BC the technology to work iron into steel through thequenching and carbonization of the metal became commonplace. A largenumber of iron-producing sites have not been found in Palestine, andno deposits of the raw material have been located. Iron deposits havebeen found between the Jordan and the Euphrates rivers, but whetherthe ancients were aware of these deposits is unknown.

Oncethe technology to turn iron into steel became known, both becamehighly valued. At the same time, it is possible that copper hadbecome more difficult to obtain due to a change in internationaltrading routes. The first steel implement to be unearthed inPalestine was a pick found in Upper Galilee dating to the eleventhcenturyBC.

Oneof the earliest references to iron in Scripture is its use by theCanaanites to make chariots (Josh. 17:16, 18). This would have beenan early use of the metal in the Iron AgeI period (1200–1000BC). Also, Goliath’s spear, which was as big as a weaver’srod, is said to have had a head made of iron (1Sam. 17:7).Elisha’s miracle of making a borrowed ax head float (2Kings6:6) shows the continued value of the metal. In his latter days,David amassed iron among the goods to give Solomon to use in buildingthe temple (1Chron. 22:14; 29:2); Solomon later used thesematerials with the help of Huram-Abi (2Chron. 2:13–14).Ezekiel discusses the economic value of iron in the context oftrading (Ezek. 27:12, 19), and Daniel uses it as a metaphor fordiscussing strength (Dan. 2:40–41). The NT recognizes thestrength of iron when discussing Christ’s iron scepter (Rev.2:27; 19:15).

Tin

Tinwas initially used mainly to produce the copper alloy bronze. Tin wasnot used in its pure form until well into the Roman period, and eventhen seldom by itself. The sources of tin in the ancient world arecurrently debated. The tin from large deposits in Tarshish insouthern Spain (Ezek. 27:12) was available through Phoeniciantraders. Tin is also found in large deposits in Anatolia, but it iscurrently unknown whether these deposits had been discovered and usedduring biblical times. A third option is modern-day Afghanistan.Archaeologists have discovered in modern Turkey the remains of awrecked ship, dated to around 1350 BC, that was carrying ten tons ofcopper ingots and about one ton of tin ingots. These ingots possiblyoriginated in the area of modern-day Afghanistan and were bound forthe Mediterranean trade routes. Tin is mentioned only four times inScripture, always within a list of other metals (Num. 31:22; Ezek.22:18, 20; 27:12).

Lead

Leadwas used early in human history, but its applications were few. Itwould have been mined with copper and silver ore and then extractedas a by-product. The Romans used it for various implements, mostnotably wine vessels. It is referenced nine times within Scripture,either in a list or in reference to its weight. The only two times itis referenced as an object is when Job mentions a lead writingimplement (Job 19:24), and when Zechariah has the vision of a womansitting in the basket with a lead cover (Zech. 5:7, 8).

Goldand Silver

Soughtafter for much of human history, gold and silver have been worked byhumans for their ornamental value. The practical uses of these metalswithin the biblical setting were constrained mainly to their economicand ornamental value. Gold and silver jewelry were used as a form ofpayment and were minted into coins during the Greco-Roman era. Goldobjects are relatively scarce in archaeological finds, mainly becausemost gold items would have been part of a large treasury carried offas tribute or plunder. Silver appears in the archaeological recordmore frequently; a remarkable hoard of silver in lump form was foundat Eshtemoa (see 1Sam. 30:26–28). This silver has beendated to the time of the kingdom of Judah, after the northern kingdomof Israel had fallen. The silver in raw lump form was most likelyused as a monetary payment, even though it had not yet been mintedinto coins.

Goldin the ancient world came largely from Egypt and northern Africa. TheBible mentions Havilah as a land of gold (Gen. 2:11), as well asOphir (1Kings 9:28), but the exact location of both places isunknown. Silver was mined in southern Spain, along with other metals,and brought to the area through sea trading. The Athenians of theClassical period were also known for their vast silver-miningoperations.

Silverand gold are mentioned repeatedly in the OT in reference to theiruses in trading and their economic value. Most notably, theIsraelites asked their Egyptian neighbors to give them gold andsilver items just before they left Egypt (Exod. 3:22). The tabernaclewas highly ornamented with these two metals, as was the temple builtby Solomon. It is said that Solomon made the nation so wealthy thatsilver was considered as plentiful as stone (1Kings 10:27).Perhaps the most notorious articles of silver within Scripture arethose paid to Judas for his betrayal of Jesus (Matt. 26:15).

PreciousStones

Stonesof various origins were used in and around Palestine. The Bible makesfew references to their use. Like gold and silver, they were usedmainly for their ornamental value. Their scarcity made them highlyprized. One notable exception is turquoise. The Egyptian pharaohswere fascinated with turquoise, and they mined extensively for it onthe Sinai Peninsula. The remains of several turquoise mines have beenfound with Canaanite markings, indicating the presence of Canaaniteslaves working the Egyptian mines. There was also a line of fortsalong the northern edge of the Egyptian Empire, used presumably toprotect the pharaohs’ turquoise interests. Precious stones werealso found in Syria, where Phoenician traders would have been able tobring them from other parts of the known world.

Exodus28:17–21 describes twelve stones set in the breastpiece worn bythe Israelite high priest. Twelve stones likewise appear in thefoundations of the new Jerusalem (Rev. 21:19–20). Ezekiel usesnine of these same twelve stones to discuss the adornment of the kingof Tyre (Ezek. 28:13).

TheBible uses the blanket term “precious stones” to denote ahoard of riches, such as that owned by Solomon (1Kings 10:10).

Unlike modern systems of jurisprudence, the Bible does not draw distinctions between criminal, civil, family, and religious law, either in its terminology or in its presentation of legal material. In the Bible, acts of deviance that are defined as criminal in virtually all societies are discussed alongside violations of a culturally specific, religious nature. For instance, the Ten Commandments prohibit murder and dishonoring parents (Exod. 20:12–13), as well as commanding Sabbath observance (Exod. 20:8–11). Any attempt to extract a system of criminal law from biblical materials must account for the fact that every culture defines deviance differently, with respect not only to specific acts but also to categories of deviance.

When viewed from the standpoint of the Bible’s organization of legal material, the terminology used, and the sanctions applied, there is substantial overlap in the Bible between “crime” and what modern societies define as noncriminal deviance. For present purposes, we might define “crime” broadly as including any act of social deviance that merits the application of a sanction by society at large (as opposed to the ad hoc fiats of rulers, as in Gen. 26:11) and that can be prohibited in a generally applied rule (even accounting for differences between free citizens and slaves, as in Exod. 21:18–21). As we will see, the Bible requires punishments, often severe, for a broad spectrum of offenses.

Capital Crimes

The Pentateuch mandates the death penalty for a wide variety of crimes. Often the mode of execution is unspecified. Where a particular mode is prescribed, the death penalty most often consisted of stoning (as in Num. 15:35) and less frequently of burning (Lev. 20:14) or shooting with arrows (Exod. 19:13).

Crimes incurring the death penalty include killing or murder (Exod. 21:12–14; Lev. 24:17; Num. 35:16), though the crime is aggravated or lessened depending on the intention behind it (Exod. 21:13–14) and whether a weapon is involved (Num. 35:16); attacking parents (Exod. 21:15); kidnapping and slave trading (Exod. 21:16; Deut. 24:7); cursing parents (Exod 21:17; Lev. 20:9); negligence resulting in death (Exod. 21:29); bestial*ty (Exod. 22:19; Lev. 20:15–16); breach of the Sabbath (Exod. 31:14–15; Num. 15:35); child sacrifice (Lev. 20:2); adultery (Lev. 20:10; Deut. 22:22); incest (Lev. 20:11–12); hom*osexuality (Lev. 20:13); marrying a woman and her mother (Lev. 20:14); witchcraft (Exod. 22:18; Lev. 20:27); blasphemy (Exod. 24:16); unauthorized approach to the tabernacle (Num. 1:51); idolatry (Num. 25:5); false prophecy and divination (Deut. 13:5); presumptuous prophecy (Deut. 18:20); enticing others to idolatry (Deut. 13:6–10); false testimony in a capital case (Deut. 19:19); and contempt for authorities (Deut. 17:2; Josh. 1:18).

When the body of an executed criminal was displayed by hanging, it had to be removed by nightfall (Deut. 21:22). The death penalty was not to be applied vicariously to family members of criminals (Deut. 24:16). In OT texts, execution was to be carried out by the victims (Deut. 13:9), families of victims (the “avenger of blood” of Num. 35:19), or witnesses to the crime.

The NT mentions an official or professional executioner (Mark 6:27). Paul declares that the authorities rightly derive the power of the sword from God (Rom. 13:4).

Punishments for Noncapital Crimes

Corporal punishment. Beating as a criminal punishment is rare in the OT (Jer. 20:2; 37:15). Most OT references to beating occur in the context of the household, as a punishment for slaves or children. Deuteronomy 25:3 limits the number of strokes in a flogging to forty (see 2 Cor. 11:24). Flogging was commonly applied as a criminal punishment in Roman times, and it was a common mode of discipline within the Roman military (Acts 16:22; 2 Cor. 11:25; 1 Pet. 2:20).

Restitution. Crimes against property were punished by compelling the offender to make restitution by repaying, often in an amount that exceeded the actual damages, including in cases of theft or negligence (Exod. 21:33; 22:3–15); killing an animal (Lev. 24:18, 21); having sexual relations with a virgin not pledged to be married (Exod. 22:16); injuring a pregnant woman (Exod. 21:22); harming a slave (Exod. 21:26–27). Financial restitution could not be made for murder (Num. 35:31).

Retribution. The notion of the lex talionis, the law of retribution, is stated in Exod. 21:23–24: “life for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot” (cf. Lev. 24:19–20; Deut. 19:21; Matt. 5:38). This formula appears in other ancient legal traditions. The idea of bodily mutilation may strike modern readers as barbaric, but such laws may actually have been relatively enlightened by ancient standards, as they imposed a proportional limit on retribution.

Incarceration. In modern societies, incarceration and probation account for the vast majority of the punishments resulting from criminal offenses. In the OT, incarceration is rarely mentioned apart from the imprisonment of war captives (e.g., Judg. 16:21) and political dissidents. Jeremiah was imprisoned several times for his criticism of the regime (Jer. 32:2; 37:15). Throughout the Bible, prisoners often are guarded by soldiers rather than by professional jailers.

Paul imprisoned Christians prior to his conversion (Acts 8:3), and he himself was imprisoned or placed under arrest several times (e.g., Acts 16:23; 20:23; 24:27; Rom. 16:7). John the Baptist was imprisoned after he criticized Herod (Mark 6:17). Again, in both cases, incarceration was used to silence and segregate someone whose free movement in society threatened political stability rather than to punish a common criminal. In Matt. 5:25–26 Jesus refers to imprisonment for an unspecified reason, though the threat that “you will not get out until you have paid the last penny” suggests that incarceration was a substitute for an unpaid fine or monetary penalty. This recalls Exod. 22:3, which mandates that a thief who could not make financial restitution for theft must be sold (as a slave).

Banishment and cities of refuge. A number of OT passages refer to the “cutting off” of a person from the community. It is not clear whether this language refers to exile or the death penalty; several of the crimes thus punished are known to be capital crimes in other texts.

The law of Num. 35:6–34 establishes six “cities of refuge” among the towns allotted to the Levites. To these cities an unintentional killer could flee from the “avenger of blood,” a relative of the victim, until such time as the case could be adjudicated by the whole community. A killer who was found to have acted unintentionally and without malice could remain in the city of refuge, safe from retribution, until the death of the high priest, at which time the killer was free to return home with impunity.

Trials and Judgments

In biblical times Israel did not have an independent judiciary. Judgments in criminal cases were rendered by local elders (Josh. 20:4), communities (Num. 35:24), monarchs, or other rulers and officials. The judges of the book of Judges were primarily military rulers, though they may have also adjudicated cases as a function of their military and political power (Judg. 4:5). Cases were decided on the basis of eyewitness testimony (Num. 35:30) and, in the case of capital crimes, on the basis of multiple witnesses (Deut. 17:6). In some cases, the Bible provides detailed statutory criteria for making such judgments, as in the discussion in Num. 35:16–28 of the difference between murder and unintentional killing. In some cases, where the determination of guilt or innocence would have been impossible, as in the case of suspected adultery, a verdict could be attained through divination (Num. 5:11–31). As already noted, the judgment of some cases could be affected by the slave status of those involved (Exod. 20:20–21; see also 22:8–9).

The trial and execution of Naboth, though ultimately a subversion of justice of the highest order, offers an insight into the operation of justice in Israel in the monarchic period (1 Kings 21:1–16). Naboth was accused on a trumped-up charge of blasphemy, a capital crime (Exod. 24:16). He was tried by the notables of his city, and on the testimony of two (false) witnesses (Deut. 17:6), he was then stoned to death.

From the standpoint of OT law, the trial and execution of Jesus were complicated by the context of concurrent systems of Jewish and Roman law and government. Like Naboth, Jesus was accused by false witnesses (Matt. 26:60–61). Ultimately, the Sanhedrin determined that because Jesus had blasphemed in its presence by identifying himself as the Messiah and the Son of God, further witness testimony was unnecessary in order to achieve the desired result, the death penalty (Matt. 26:65–66; John 19:7). Ultimately, the Sanhedrin had to involve the Roman governor because it lacked the authority to execute a criminal (John 18:31). By the time Jesus was taken before Pilate, the charge had been changed from a religious one to a political one: Jesus claimed to be the king of the Jews, thus subverting Roman authority (Matt. 26:11–12). Eventually, Pilate tortured and executed Jesus not because he saw merit in the charges but rather to avoid a riot (Matt. 27:24; John 19:4, 12). Luke reports that Jesus also had a trial before Herod Antipas, the ruler to whom Jesus was subject as a Galilean (23:7). Thus, the trial of Jesus in some ways reflects both Jewish and Roman law, but it also involves some purely pragmatic (and legally and morally questionable) actions on the part of both the Sanhedrin and Pilate.

Unlike modern systems of jurisprudence, the Bible does not draw distinctions between criminal, civil, family, and religious law, either in its terminology or in its presentation of legal material. In the Bible, acts of deviance that are defined as criminal in virtually all societies are discussed alongside violations of a culturally specific, religious nature. For instance, the Ten Commandments prohibit murder and dishonoring parents (Exod. 20:12–13), as well as commanding Sabbath observance (Exod. 20:8–11). Any attempt to extract a system of criminal law from biblical materials must account for the fact that every culture defines deviance differently, with respect not only to specific acts but also to categories of deviance.

When viewed from the standpoint of the Bible’s organization of legal material, the terminology used, and the sanctions applied, there is substantial overlap in the Bible between “crime” and what modern societies define as noncriminal deviance. For present purposes, we might define “crime” broadly as including any act of social deviance that merits the application of a sanction by society at large (as opposed to the ad hoc fiats of rulers, as in Gen. 26:11) and that can be prohibited in a generally applied rule (even accounting for differences between free citizens and slaves, as in Exod. 21:18–21). As we will see, the Bible requires punishments, often severe, for a broad spectrum of offenses.

Capital Crimes

The Pentateuch mandates the death penalty for a wide variety of crimes. Often the mode of execution is unspecified. Where a particular mode is prescribed, the death penalty most often consisted of stoning (as in Num. 15:35) and less frequently of burning (Lev. 20:14) or shooting with arrows (Exod. 19:13).

Crimes incurring the death penalty include killing or murder (Exod. 21:12–14; Lev. 24:17; Num. 35:16), though the crime is aggravated or lessened depending on the intention behind it (Exod. 21:13–14) and whether a weapon is involved (Num. 35:16); attacking parents (Exod. 21:15); kidnapping and slave trading (Exod. 21:16; Deut. 24:7); cursing parents (Exod 21:17; Lev. 20:9); negligence resulting in death (Exod. 21:29); bestial*ty (Exod. 22:19; Lev. 20:15–16); breach of the Sabbath (Exod. 31:14–15; Num. 15:35); child sacrifice (Lev. 20:2); adultery (Lev. 20:10; Deut. 22:22); incest (Lev. 20:11–12); hom*osexuality (Lev. 20:13); marrying a woman and her mother (Lev. 20:14); witchcraft (Exod. 22:18; Lev. 20:27); blasphemy (Exod. 24:16); unauthorized approach to the tabernacle (Num. 1:51); idolatry (Num. 25:5); false prophecy and divination (Deut. 13:5); presumptuous prophecy (Deut. 18:20); enticing others to idolatry (Deut. 13:6–10); false testimony in a capital case (Deut. 19:19); and contempt for authorities (Deut. 17:2; Josh. 1:18).

When the body of an executed criminal was displayed by hanging, it had to be removed by nightfall (Deut. 21:22). The death penalty was not to be applied vicariously to family members of criminals (Deut. 24:16). In OT texts, execution was to be carried out by the victims (Deut. 13:9), families of victims (the “avenger of blood” of Num. 35:19), or witnesses to the crime.

The NT mentions an official or professional executioner (Mark 6:27). Paul declares that the authorities rightly derive the power of the sword from God (Rom. 13:4).

Punishments for Noncapital Crimes

Corporal punishment. Beating as a criminal punishment is rare in the OT (Jer. 20:2; 37:15). Most OT references to beating occur in the context of the household, as a punishment for slaves or children. Deuteronomy 25:3 limits the number of strokes in a flogging to forty (see 2 Cor. 11:24). Flogging was commonly applied as a criminal punishment in Roman times, and it was a common mode of discipline within the Roman military (Acts 16:22; 2 Cor. 11:25; 1 Pet. 2:20).

Restitution. Crimes against property were punished by compelling the offender to make restitution by repaying, often in an amount that exceeded the actual damages, including in cases of theft or negligence (Exod. 21:33; 22:3–15); killing an animal (Lev. 24:18, 21); having sexual relations with a virgin not pledged to be married (Exod. 22:16); injuring a pregnant woman (Exod. 21:22); harming a slave (Exod. 21:26–27). Financial restitution could not be made for murder (Num. 35:31).

Retribution. The notion of the lex talionis, the law of retribution, is stated in Exod. 21:23–24: “life for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot” (cf. Lev. 24:19–20; Deut. 19:21; Matt. 5:38). This formula appears in other ancient legal traditions. The idea of bodily mutilation may strike modern readers as barbaric, but such laws may actually have been relatively enlightened by ancient standards, as they imposed a proportional limit on retribution.

Incarceration. In modern societies, incarceration and probation account for the vast majority of the punishments resulting from criminal offenses. In the OT, incarceration is rarely mentioned apart from the imprisonment of war captives (e.g., Judg. 16:21) and political dissidents. Jeremiah was imprisoned several times for his criticism of the regime (Jer. 32:2; 37:15). Throughout the Bible, prisoners often are guarded by soldiers rather than by professional jailers.

Paul imprisoned Christians prior to his conversion (Acts 8:3), and he himself was imprisoned or placed under arrest several times (e.g., Acts 16:23; 20:23; 24:27; Rom. 16:7). John the Baptist was imprisoned after he criticized Herod (Mark 6:17). Again, in both cases, incarceration was used to silence and segregate someone whose free movement in society threatened political stability rather than to punish a common criminal. In Matt. 5:25–26 Jesus refers to imprisonment for an unspecified reason, though the threat that “you will not get out until you have paid the last penny” suggests that incarceration was a substitute for an unpaid fine or monetary penalty. This recalls Exod. 22:3, which mandates that a thief who could not make financial restitution for theft must be sold (as a slave).

Banishment and cities of refuge. A number of OT passages refer to the “cutting off” of a person from the community. It is not clear whether this language refers to exile or the death penalty; several of the crimes thus punished are known to be capital crimes in other texts.

The law of Num. 35:6–34 establishes six “cities of refuge” among the towns allotted to the Levites. To these cities an unintentional killer could flee from the “avenger of blood,” a relative of the victim, until such time as the case could be adjudicated by the whole community. A killer who was found to have acted unintentionally and without malice could remain in the city of refuge, safe from retribution, until the death of the high priest, at which time the killer was free to return home with impunity.

Trials and Judgments

In biblical times Israel did not have an independent judiciary. Judgments in criminal cases were rendered by local elders (Josh. 20:4), communities (Num. 35:24), monarchs, or other rulers and officials. The judges of the book of Judges were primarily military rulers, though they may have also adjudicated cases as a function of their military and political power (Judg. 4:5). Cases were decided on the basis of eyewitness testimony (Num. 35:30) and, in the case of capital crimes, on the basis of multiple witnesses (Deut. 17:6). In some cases, the Bible provides detailed statutory criteria for making such judgments, as in the discussion in Num. 35:16–28 of the difference between murder and unintentional killing. In some cases, where the determination of guilt or innocence would have been impossible, as in the case of suspected adultery, a verdict could be attained through divination (Num. 5:11–31). As already noted, the judgment of some cases could be affected by the slave status of those involved (Exod. 20:20–21; see also 22:8–9).

The trial and execution of Naboth, though ultimately a subversion of justice of the highest order, offers an insight into the operation of justice in Israel in the monarchic period (1 Kings 21:1–16). Naboth was accused on a trumped-up charge of blasphemy, a capital crime (Exod. 24:16). He was tried by the notables of his city, and on the testimony of two (false) witnesses (Deut. 17:6), he was then stoned to death.

From the standpoint of OT law, the trial and execution of Jesus were complicated by the context of concurrent systems of Jewish and Roman law and government. Like Naboth, Jesus was accused by false witnesses (Matt. 26:60–61). Ultimately, the Sanhedrin determined that because Jesus had blasphemed in its presence by identifying himself as the Messiah and the Son of God, further witness testimony was unnecessary in order to achieve the desired result, the death penalty (Matt. 26:65–66; John 19:7). Ultimately, the Sanhedrin had to involve the Roman governor because it lacked the authority to execute a criminal (John 18:31). By the time Jesus was taken before Pilate, the charge had been changed from a religious one to a political one: Jesus claimed to be the king of the Jews, thus subverting Roman authority (Matt. 26:11–12). Eventually, Pilate tortured and executed Jesus not because he saw merit in the charges but rather to avoid a riot (Matt. 27:24; John 19:4, 12). Luke reports that Jesus also had a trial before Herod Antipas, the ruler to whom Jesus was subject as a Galilean (23:7). Thus, the trial of Jesus in some ways reflects both Jewish and Roman law, but it also involves some purely pragmatic (and legally and morally questionable) actions on the part of both the Sanhedrin and Pilate.

Spinning (forming fibers into thread or yarn) and weaving(forming yarn into textiles) were the basic economic activities ofwomen throughout the ancient world (see Exod. 35:25–26). Thisis reflected in the Bible in Prov. 31:10–31, where the “wifeof noble character” is depicted as a proficient producer offine textiles. The process is portrayed in some detail, including thegathering of raw materials (31:13), the skillful making of yarn withdistaff and spindle (31:19), the crafting of garments and upholstery(31:22, 24), and the selling of the same (31:24). As is clear fromthis passage, textile production was a domestic activity, takingplace not in specialized factories but in any home where sufficientlabor was available. The Hebrew word for “weaver” occursas a masculine participle, suggesting the participation of men in thecraft (Exod. 35:35; Isa. 38:12).

Inbiblical Israel, fabric was made either from flax (a plant fiberyielding linen fabric) or wool (sheep or goat). In Isa. 19:9 theproduction of fine linen is particularly associated with Egypt. Themost abundant evidence of spinning and weaving to survive in thearchaeological record comes in the form of stone or clay loom weightsand spindle whorls. Less frequently, we find fragments of the woodenparts of the loom (such as the heddle rod or beam [see 1Sam.17:7]), bone or ivory tools, spinning bowls, and in some cases actualtextile and cordage fragments. A loom is a wooden framework on whichfabric is woven. In biblical lands, both vertical (against a wall)and horizontal (parallel with the ground) looms were used. Theubiquity of these implements in excavations of domestic sites atteststhe universality of textile production as a home craft in thebiblical world. Samson tricks Delilah into weaving his hair into aloom and tightening it with a pin (Judg. 16:13). Again, this storyillustrates the fact that the typical home contained a loom.

Severalancient cultures had a patron deity of spinning and weaving, usuallya female goddess: the Mesopotamian Uttu, the Egyptian Tait, andAthena in the Greek world. There are indications that Asherah was thegoddess of spinning and weaving in West Semitic culture, whichincludes Israel and its neighbors. Evidence for spinning and weavinghas been discovered at a tenth-century BC cultic site at Ta’anachin central Israel (see 2Kings 23:7).

Metaphorically,a spider spins its web (Isa. 59:5). Jesus reverses the analogy ofspinning and weaving to the natural world by stating that the liliesof the field “do not labor or spin” and yet aremagnificently clothed in natural beauty, exceeding even theartificial splendor of Solomon (Matt. 6:28; Luke 12:27).

Unlike modern systems of jurisprudence, the Bible does not draw distinctions between criminal, civil, family, and religious law, either in its terminology or in its presentation of legal material. In the Bible, acts of deviance that are defined as criminal in virtually all societies are discussed alongside violations of a culturally specific, religious nature. For instance, the Ten Commandments prohibit murder and dishonoring parents (Exod. 20:12–13), as well as commanding Sabbath observance (Exod. 20:8–11). Any attempt to extract a system of criminal law from biblical materials must account for the fact that every culture defines deviance differently, with respect not only to specific acts but also to categories of deviance.

When viewed from the standpoint of the Bible’s organization of legal material, the terminology used, and the sanctions applied, there is substantial overlap in the Bible between “crime” and what modern societies define as noncriminal deviance. For present purposes, we might define “crime” broadly as including any act of social deviance that merits the application of a sanction by society at large (as opposed to the ad hoc fiats of rulers, as in Gen. 26:11) and that can be prohibited in a generally applied rule (even accounting for differences between free citizens and slaves, as in Exod. 21:18–21). As we will see, the Bible requires punishments, often severe, for a broad spectrum of offenses.

Capital Crimes

The Pentateuch mandates the death penalty for a wide variety of crimes. Often the mode of execution is unspecified. Where a particular mode is prescribed, the death penalty most often consisted of stoning (as in Num. 15:35) and less frequently of burning (Lev. 20:14) or shooting with arrows (Exod. 19:13).

Crimes incurring the death penalty include killing or murder (Exod. 21:12–14; Lev. 24:17; Num. 35:16), though the crime is aggravated or lessened depending on the intention behind it (Exod. 21:13–14) and whether a weapon is involved (Num. 35:16); attacking parents (Exod. 21:15); kidnapping and slave trading (Exod. 21:16; Deut. 24:7); cursing parents (Exod 21:17; Lev. 20:9); negligence resulting in death (Exod. 21:29); bestial*ty (Exod. 22:19; Lev. 20:15–16); breach of the Sabbath (Exod. 31:14–15; Num. 15:35); child sacrifice (Lev. 20:2); adultery (Lev. 20:10; Deut. 22:22); incest (Lev. 20:11–12); hom*osexuality (Lev. 20:13); marrying a woman and her mother (Lev. 20:14); witchcraft (Exod. 22:18; Lev. 20:27); blasphemy (Exod. 24:16); unauthorized approach to the tabernacle (Num. 1:51); idolatry (Num. 25:5); false prophecy and divination (Deut. 13:5); presumptuous prophecy (Deut. 18:20); enticing others to idolatry (Deut. 13:6–10); false testimony in a capital case (Deut. 19:19); and contempt for authorities (Deut. 17:2; Josh. 1:18).

When the body of an executed criminal was displayed by hanging, it had to be removed by nightfall (Deut. 21:22). The death penalty was not to be applied vicariously to family members of criminals (Deut. 24:16). In OT texts, execution was to be carried out by the victims (Deut. 13:9), families of victims (the “avenger of blood” of Num. 35:19), or witnesses to the crime.

The NT mentions an official or professional executioner (Mark 6:27). Paul declares that the authorities rightly derive the power of the sword from God (Rom. 13:4).

Punishments for Noncapital Crimes

Corporal punishment. Beating as a criminal punishment is rare in the OT (Jer. 20:2; 37:15). Most OT references to beating occur in the context of the household, as a punishment for slaves or children. Deuteronomy 25:3 limits the number of strokes in a flogging to forty (see 2 Cor. 11:24). Flogging was commonly applied as a criminal punishment in Roman times, and it was a common mode of discipline within the Roman military (Acts 16:22; 2 Cor. 11:25; 1 Pet. 2:20).

Restitution. Crimes against property were punished by compelling the offender to make restitution by repaying, often in an amount that exceeded the actual damages, including in cases of theft or negligence (Exod. 21:33; 22:3–15); killing an animal (Lev. 24:18, 21); having sexual relations with a virgin not pledged to be married (Exod. 22:16); injuring a pregnant woman (Exod. 21:22); harming a slave (Exod. 21:26–27). Financial restitution could not be made for murder (Num. 35:31).

Retribution. The notion of the lex talionis, the law of retribution, is stated in Exod. 21:23–24: “life for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot” (cf. Lev. 24:19–20; Deut. 19:21; Matt. 5:38). This formula appears in other ancient legal traditions. The idea of bodily mutilation may strike modern readers as barbaric, but such laws may actually have been relatively enlightened by ancient standards, as they imposed a proportional limit on retribution.

Incarceration. In modern societies, incarceration and probation account for the vast majority of the punishments resulting from criminal offenses. In the OT, incarceration is rarely mentioned apart from the imprisonment of war captives (e.g., Judg. 16:21) and political dissidents. Jeremiah was imprisoned several times for his criticism of the regime (Jer. 32:2; 37:15). Throughout the Bible, prisoners often are guarded by soldiers rather than by professional jailers.

Paul imprisoned Christians prior to his conversion (Acts 8:3), and he himself was imprisoned or placed under arrest several times (e.g., Acts 16:23; 20:23; 24:27; Rom. 16:7). John the Baptist was imprisoned after he criticized Herod (Mark 6:17). Again, in both cases, incarceration was used to silence and segregate someone whose free movement in society threatened political stability rather than to punish a common criminal. In Matt. 5:25–26 Jesus refers to imprisonment for an unspecified reason, though the threat that “you will not get out until you have paid the last penny” suggests that incarceration was a substitute for an unpaid fine or monetary penalty. This recalls Exod. 22:3, which mandates that a thief who could not make financial restitution for theft must be sold (as a slave).

Banishment and cities of refuge. A number of OT passages refer to the “cutting off” of a person from the community. It is not clear whether this language refers to exile or the death penalty; several of the crimes thus punished are known to be capital crimes in other texts.

The law of Num. 35:6–34 establishes six “cities of refuge” among the towns allotted to the Levites. To these cities an unintentional killer could flee from the “avenger of blood,” a relative of the victim, until such time as the case could be adjudicated by the whole community. A killer who was found to have acted unintentionally and without malice could remain in the city of refuge, safe from retribution, until the death of the high priest, at which time the killer was free to return home with impunity.

Trials and Judgments

In biblical times Israel did not have an independent judiciary. Judgments in criminal cases were rendered by local elders (Josh. 20:4), communities (Num. 35:24), monarchs, or other rulers and officials. The judges of the book of Judges were primarily military rulers, though they may have also adjudicated cases as a function of their military and political power (Judg. 4:5). Cases were decided on the basis of eyewitness testimony (Num. 35:30) and, in the case of capital crimes, on the basis of multiple witnesses (Deut. 17:6). In some cases, the Bible provides detailed statutory criteria for making such judgments, as in the discussion in Num. 35:16–28 of the difference between murder and unintentional killing. In some cases, where the determination of guilt or innocence would have been impossible, as in the case of suspected adultery, a verdict could be attained through divination (Num. 5:11–31). As already noted, the judgment of some cases could be affected by the slave status of those involved (Exod. 20:20–21; see also 22:8–9).

The trial and execution of Naboth, though ultimately a subversion of justice of the highest order, offers an insight into the operation of justice in Israel in the monarchic period (1 Kings 21:1–16). Naboth was accused on a trumped-up charge of blasphemy, a capital crime (Exod. 24:16). He was tried by the notables of his city, and on the testimony of two (false) witnesses (Deut. 17:6), he was then stoned to death.

From the standpoint of OT law, the trial and execution of Jesus were complicated by the context of concurrent systems of Jewish and Roman law and government. Like Naboth, Jesus was accused by false witnesses (Matt. 26:60–61). Ultimately, the Sanhedrin determined that because Jesus had blasphemed in its presence by identifying himself as the Messiah and the Son of God, further witness testimony was unnecessary in order to achieve the desired result, the death penalty (Matt. 26:65–66; John 19:7). Ultimately, the Sanhedrin had to involve the Roman governor because it lacked the authority to execute a criminal (John 18:31). By the time Jesus was taken before Pilate, the charge had been changed from a religious one to a political one: Jesus claimed to be the king of the Jews, thus subverting Roman authority (Matt. 26:11–12). Eventually, Pilate tortured and executed Jesus not because he saw merit in the charges but rather to avoid a riot (Matt. 27:24; John 19:4, 12). Luke reports that Jesus also had a trial before Herod Antipas, the ruler to whom Jesus was subject as a Galilean (23:7). Thus, the trial of Jesus in some ways reflects both Jewish and Roman law, but it also involves some purely pragmatic (and legally and morally questionable) actions on the part of both the Sanhedrin and Pilate.

Unlike modern systems of jurisprudence, the Bible does not draw distinctions between criminal, civil, family, and religious law, either in its terminology or in its presentation of legal material. In the Bible, acts of deviance that are defined as criminal in virtually all societies are discussed alongside violations of a culturally specific, religious nature. For instance, the Ten Commandments prohibit murder and dishonoring parents (Exod. 20:12–13), as well as commanding Sabbath observance (Exod. 20:8–11). Any attempt to extract a system of criminal law from biblical materials must account for the fact that every culture defines deviance differently, with respect not only to specific acts but also to categories of deviance.

When viewed from the standpoint of the Bible’s organization of legal material, the terminology used, and the sanctions applied, there is substantial overlap in the Bible between “crime” and what modern societies define as noncriminal deviance. For present purposes, we might define “crime” broadly as including any act of social deviance that merits the application of a sanction by society at large (as opposed to the ad hoc fiats of rulers, as in Gen. 26:11) and that can be prohibited in a generally applied rule (even accounting for differences between free citizens and slaves, as in Exod. 21:18–21). As we will see, the Bible requires punishments, often severe, for a broad spectrum of offenses.

Capital Crimes

The Pentateuch mandates the death penalty for a wide variety of crimes. Often the mode of execution is unspecified. Where a particular mode is prescribed, the death penalty most often consisted of stoning (as in Num. 15:35) and less frequently of burning (Lev. 20:14) or shooting with arrows (Exod. 19:13).

Crimes incurring the death penalty include killing or murder (Exod. 21:12–14; Lev. 24:17; Num. 35:16), though the crime is aggravated or lessened depending on the intention behind it (Exod. 21:13–14) and whether a weapon is involved (Num. 35:16); attacking parents (Exod. 21:15); kidnapping and slave trading (Exod. 21:16; Deut. 24:7); cursing parents (Exod 21:17; Lev. 20:9); negligence resulting in death (Exod. 21:29); bestial*ty (Exod. 22:19; Lev. 20:15–16); breach of the Sabbath (Exod. 31:14–15; Num. 15:35); child sacrifice (Lev. 20:2); adultery (Lev. 20:10; Deut. 22:22); incest (Lev. 20:11–12); hom*osexuality (Lev. 20:13); marrying a woman and her mother (Lev. 20:14); witchcraft (Exod. 22:18; Lev. 20:27); blasphemy (Exod. 24:16); unauthorized approach to the tabernacle (Num. 1:51); idolatry (Num. 25:5); false prophecy and divination (Deut. 13:5); presumptuous prophecy (Deut. 18:20); enticing others to idolatry (Deut. 13:6–10); false testimony in a capital case (Deut. 19:19); and contempt for authorities (Deut. 17:2; Josh. 1:18).

When the body of an executed criminal was displayed by hanging, it had to be removed by nightfall (Deut. 21:22). The death penalty was not to be applied vicariously to family members of criminals (Deut. 24:16). In OT texts, execution was to be carried out by the victims (Deut. 13:9), families of victims (the “avenger of blood” of Num. 35:19), or witnesses to the crime.

The NT mentions an official or professional executioner (Mark 6:27). Paul declares that the authorities rightly derive the power of the sword from God (Rom. 13:4).

Punishments for Noncapital Crimes

Corporal punishment. Beating as a criminal punishment is rare in the OT (Jer. 20:2; 37:15). Most OT references to beating occur in the context of the household, as a punishment for slaves or children. Deuteronomy 25:3 limits the number of strokes in a flogging to forty (see 2 Cor. 11:24). Flogging was commonly applied as a criminal punishment in Roman times, and it was a common mode of discipline within the Roman military (Acts 16:22; 2 Cor. 11:25; 1 Pet. 2:20).

Restitution. Crimes against property were punished by compelling the offender to make restitution by repaying, often in an amount that exceeded the actual damages, including in cases of theft or negligence (Exod. 21:33; 22:3–15); killing an animal (Lev. 24:18, 21); having sexual relations with a virgin not pledged to be married (Exod. 22:16); injuring a pregnant woman (Exod. 21:22); harming a slave (Exod. 21:26–27). Financial restitution could not be made for murder (Num. 35:31).

Retribution. The notion of the lex talionis, the law of retribution, is stated in Exod. 21:23–24: “life for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot” (cf. Lev. 24:19–20; Deut. 19:21; Matt. 5:38). This formula appears in other ancient legal traditions. The idea of bodily mutilation may strike modern readers as barbaric, but such laws may actually have been relatively enlightened by ancient standards, as they imposed a proportional limit on retribution.

Incarceration. In modern societies, incarceration and probation account for the vast majority of the punishments resulting from criminal offenses. In the OT, incarceration is rarely mentioned apart from the imprisonment of war captives (e.g., Judg. 16:21) and political dissidents. Jeremiah was imprisoned several times for his criticism of the regime (Jer. 32:2; 37:15). Throughout the Bible, prisoners often are guarded by soldiers rather than by professional jailers.

Paul imprisoned Christians prior to his conversion (Acts 8:3), and he himself was imprisoned or placed under arrest several times (e.g., Acts 16:23; 20:23; 24:27; Rom. 16:7). John the Baptist was imprisoned after he criticized Herod (Mark 6:17). Again, in both cases, incarceration was used to silence and segregate someone whose free movement in society threatened political stability rather than to punish a common criminal. In Matt. 5:25–26 Jesus refers to imprisonment for an unspecified reason, though the threat that “you will not get out until you have paid the last penny” suggests that incarceration was a substitute for an unpaid fine or monetary penalty. This recalls Exod. 22:3, which mandates that a thief who could not make financial restitution for theft must be sold (as a slave).

Banishment and cities of refuge. A number of OT passages refer to the “cutting off” of a person from the community. It is not clear whether this language refers to exile or the death penalty; several of the crimes thus punished are known to be capital crimes in other texts.

The law of Num. 35:6–34 establishes six “cities of refuge” among the towns allotted to the Levites. To these cities an unintentional killer could flee from the “avenger of blood,” a relative of the victim, until such time as the case could be adjudicated by the whole community. A killer who was found to have acted unintentionally and without malice could remain in the city of refuge, safe from retribution, until the death of the high priest, at which time the killer was free to return home with impunity.

Trials and Judgments

In biblical times Israel did not have an independent judiciary. Judgments in criminal cases were rendered by local elders (Josh. 20:4), communities (Num. 35:24), monarchs, or other rulers and officials. The judges of the book of Judges were primarily military rulers, though they may have also adjudicated cases as a function of their military and political power (Judg. 4:5). Cases were decided on the basis of eyewitness testimony (Num. 35:30) and, in the case of capital crimes, on the basis of multiple witnesses (Deut. 17:6). In some cases, the Bible provides detailed statutory criteria for making such judgments, as in the discussion in Num. 35:16–28 of the difference between murder and unintentional killing. In some cases, where the determination of guilt or innocence would have been impossible, as in the case of suspected adultery, a verdict could be attained through divination (Num. 5:11–31). As already noted, the judgment of some cases could be affected by the slave status of those involved (Exod. 20:20–21; see also 22:8–9).

The trial and execution of Naboth, though ultimately a subversion of justice of the highest order, offers an insight into the operation of justice in Israel in the monarchic period (1 Kings 21:1–16). Naboth was accused on a trumped-up charge of blasphemy, a capital crime (Exod. 24:16). He was tried by the notables of his city, and on the testimony of two (false) witnesses (Deut. 17:6), he was then stoned to death.

From the standpoint of OT law, the trial and execution of Jesus were complicated by the context of concurrent systems of Jewish and Roman law and government. Like Naboth, Jesus was accused by false witnesses (Matt. 26:60–61). Ultimately, the Sanhedrin determined that because Jesus had blasphemed in its presence by identifying himself as the Messiah and the Son of God, further witness testimony was unnecessary in order to achieve the desired result, the death penalty (Matt. 26:65–66; John 19:7). Ultimately, the Sanhedrin had to involve the Roman governor because it lacked the authority to execute a criminal (John 18:31). By the time Jesus was taken before Pilate, the charge had been changed from a religious one to a political one: Jesus claimed to be the king of the Jews, thus subverting Roman authority (Matt. 26:11–12). Eventually, Pilate tortured and executed Jesus not because he saw merit in the charges but rather to avoid a riot (Matt. 27:24; John 19:4, 12). Luke reports that Jesus also had a trial before Herod Antipas, the ruler to whom Jesus was subject as a Galilean (23:7). Thus, the trial of Jesus in some ways reflects both Jewish and Roman law, but it also involves some purely pragmatic (and legally and morally questionable) actions on the part of both the Sanhedrin and Pilate.

Implements utilized for the purpose of craftsmanship in somemanner, whether in agriculture, commerce, or artistry.

Materials

Itcan be assumed that early Israelites used tools made of wood, bones,and ivory for the handles, and stone for the working part of thetool. Stone tools were utilized for pounding, grinding, and cutting.Many examples of stone tools have been discovered throughout theancient Near East. Early farmers and workers used some of the morebasic tools, such as hammers, pestles, knives, and chisels.

Sometools were used almost exclusively for the construction of othertools. Spherical instruments made out of diorite or some other veryhard substance were used to fashion an instrument into a usableshape. Thanks to their hardness and round shape, they rarelysplintered and could be used with reasonable force.

Onlycertain types of stone could be turned into a cutting utensil. Thestone had to have both a requisite hardness and a crystalline natureto be transformed into a blade. Only chert and flint meet suchcriteria, but only flint was readily available to the nomad, beingfound in the form of nodules and small cobbles in deposits oflimestone. Because of flint’s brittleness, the artisan had totake great care in the amount of pressure applied in making a knife.The fact that so many examples of flint knives are no larger than afew centimeters suggests that this was easier said than done. Flintknives were used by the Israelites in sacred rituals, includingcircumcision (Josh. 5:2).

Metalsbegan to be used for utensils at roughly the same time Israel enteredthe promised land. Bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, was used forweaponry and for everyday utensils. The molten alloy was poured intomolds made from stone and then shaped and formed by a smith. Asimilar process was used for iron in the periods following theinstitution of the monarchy. Early Israel apparently had few if anyblacksmiths capable of such work, since the Scriptures record thatthe Israelites went to the Philistines for production of their irontools (1Sam. 13:19). Even after the advent of alloys, however,there seems to have been a preference for the more primitive flintknives, especially in sacred ceremonies, possibly because flintmaintained a sharper edge longer, or perhaps because there was acertain taboo associated with the mixing of metals. The applicationof the profane to the sacred would have rendered the ceremony unfitfor God.

Typesof Tools

Knives.Kniveswere made in various sizes. The smallest version is referred to inJehoiakim’s destruction of Jeremiah’s manuscript in Jer.36:23 (some English versions distinguish it as a “scribe’sknife” [NIV] or “penknife” [NRSV]). This same knife(Heb. ta’ar) also was used for shaving (Num. 6:5) and appearsin imagery related to sharpness or exactness (Ps. 52:2; Isa. 7:20).Between six inches and a foot long would have been the more normallength of knives used for everyday tasks such as butchering (Gen.22:6).

Agriculturaltools. Theplow came in various sizes and forms. In the more fertile areas,plowshares were unnecessary, and a smaller utensil similar to a hoewas used simply to break up the topsoil (1Sam. 13:21). Theinstrument also was used on more uneven terrain, where a typicalanimal-drawn plowshare would not work. It was actually thisinstrument that would have been turned into a weapon of war or, inthe case of everlasting peace, transformed back into a farmingutensil (Isa. 2:4; Mic. 4:3). In more arid regions, where the soilwas more hardened and difficult to break up, the larger plowshare wasused. In a fashion well known in the Western world, the largerplowshare was harnessed to a beast of burden and guided through thefarmer’s field to prepare the land for sowing.

Harvestinginvolved the utilization of various tools. Grain was first cut with asickle (Jer. 50:16). In the ancient Near East, the sickle handletypically was short and could be held in one hand. The blade usuallywas composed ofa jawbone or curved shaft fitted with pieces offlint or other sharp objects. As an instrument of harvest, the sicklealso became a picture of judgment and ingathering (Joel 3:13; Mark4:29). For harvesting grapes, a pruning hook, which was very similarin appearance to a sickle but smaller, was used (Isa. 2:4).

Handtools. Severalsmall hand tools were similar to their modern expressions but wereused for different purposes. An awl is used to bore holes. In theancient Near East, this tool was made of stone, bone, or metal. Oneof the more distinctive uses for this tool in ancient times was topierce ears (Exod. 21:6; Deut. 15:17). Saws were made with a woodenhandle on either one end or both ends. An ancient tradition says thatIsaiah was sawn in two (cf. Heb. 11:37). Axes were used for fellingtrees (Deut. 19:5; Matt. 3:10) but also for cutting stones andremoving them from quarries (1Kings 6:7). Early models werecrafted from stone, but by the time of Israel’s nationhood theimplement was almost always made of iron. This is demonstrated atplaces where an ax head is referred to with barzel,the Hebrew word for “iron” (Deut. 19:5; 2Kings6:5).

Constructionand craftsmanship tools.When it came to building and craftsmanship, the Israelites again usedinstruments quite similar to those employed by modern counterparts.The Israelites used hammers (Isa. 44:12) made of stone, with woodenhandles, for large construction jobs. They also had several types ofchisels and other carving utensils (Exod. 32:4; Deut. 15:17). Forhammering these chisels and carving utensils, a large wooden mallet,similar to those used by craftspeople today, probably was used. Aplumb line was used for ensuring that walls were straight. Thissimple device consisted of a length of string with a weight tied tothe end. The plumb line was held up against a wall as it was beingbuilt in order to determine if the wall was consistently vertical. Assuch, it served as an appropriate image for whether Israel wasstraight in relation to its covenant with God (Amos 7:7–9).Potters used a pottery wheel (Jer. 18:3), and weavers used a loomwith a web in order to create intricate patterns of cloth (Judg.16:13–14). Blacksmiths used bellows, tongs, and hammersdesigned especially for their work (Isa. 44:12).

Bythe time of the NT, artisans were far more dependent on iron for mostof their tools. Advances in smelting and in the manipulation of thealloys allowed the crude iron of previous eras to begin approachingthe tempered steel of the Middle Ages. This permitted moreflexibility in how utensils such as hammers could be used and allowedfor more effective chisels to be created. As a result, craftsmanshipin stone, marble, and other hard surfaces became more prevalent, andossuaries, statues, and building facades became more ornate andintricate in design. Multiple examples of such craftwork have beenunearthed in archaeological digs.

One of the twelve tribes of Israel, the descendants of thefifth of Jacob’s twelve sons, Dan, whose mother was Bilhah,Rachel’s servant. Although Dan’s early history includedthe notable Oholiab, a chief craftsman of the sanctuary built underthe direction of Moses (Exod. 31:6; 35:34; 36:1, 2; 38:23), it wasotherwise unremarkable. Dan participated with the other tribes inresponsibilities shared across all Israel. For example, the camp ofDan is named as rearguard of the wilderness tabernacle (Num. 2:25,31). Other instances include sending a representative to spy out theland, being counted in the census, and being instructed by Moses toparticipate in deciding the territorial allotments (Num. 13:12;26:42; 34:22). However, the harsh nature of Jacob’s blessingfor his son Dan, in which he prophesied that Dan will be not only ajudge but also a serpent and a viper, rightly suggests that Dan’sfuture would be troubled (Gen. 49:16–17).

TheTerritory of Dan

Thepostconquest tribal allotment to Dan was a roughly U-shaped area tothe northwest of Jerusalem, between the allotments of Judah andEphraim. It included the cities along the northern border ofJudah—Zorah, Eshtaol, Timnah, Ekron—and extended to theMediterranean coast, including Joppa. However, the text immediatelynotes that Dan was unable to possess its territory. Instead, Danmoved from there to the northern city of Leshem (Laish), situated atthe foot of Mount Hermon and near the headwaters of the Jordan. Afterbrutally attacking Leshem, Dan took it over (Josh. 19:40–48).

Thebook of Judges provides additional insight into these events. Dan hadtrouble occupying its own territory because of the Amorites, who keptDan in the hills away from the coastal plain (1:34). Dan was alsopressured by the Philistines (13:1). God eventually raised Samson, aDanite, as judge of Israel against the Philistines (13:2–5; cf.Gen. 49:16). In the end, however, rather than defeating thePhilistines, Samson was ensnared by them (Judg. 14–16).

TheSamson narrative is followed by the detailed story of the Danites’move to the north (Judg. 17–18). Having concluded that theymust relocate in order to settle, the tribe sent out scouts to find anew home. They met Micah’s Levite along the way and eventuallycame to Laish, where they saw a fertile and prosperous land populatedby peaceful, unsuspecting inhabitants under the protection of theSidonians, a remote distance to the west. After the scouts’report, the Danites raised an army of six hundred, which returnednorth via Micah’s house. Taking the Levite and Micah’sidol with them, they proceeded to Laish. Encountering no opposingforces, they attacked and burned the city.

Theseevents help explain an otherwise perplexing verse incorporated intoMoses’ farewell blessing to the twelve tribes (Deut. 33:22).Moses refers to Dan as a lion’s cub “springing out ofBashan.” Although “Bashan” is a place name, it isnot otherwise associated with Dan. However, bashan also means“snake.” Dan, as a cub rather than a full-grown lion, wasnot fierce enough to claim its divine allotment and thus was leapingaway from its oppressors, the snake. But Dan, a lion nonetheless, wasindeed fierce enough to lay waste to the peaceful, isolated Laish.

Indue course, the Danites rebuilt Laish, renamed it “Dan,”and set up Micah’s idol as a shrine there. This initiated thecity’s long history as a seat of apostasy (Judg. 18:28–31),which was furthered by the sin of Jeroboam, who placed one of his twogolden calves there (1Kings 12:29–30; 2Kings10:29).

Danthroughout the Bible

Dan’sextreme northern location as compared to Beersheba in the Negevcontributed to the expression “from Dan to Beersheba” asa common description for the entire land of Israel (Judg. 20:1;1Sam. 3:20; 2Sam. 3:10; 17:11; 24:2, 15; 1Kings4:25; 1Chron. 21:2; 2Chron. 30:5; cf. Amos 8:14).

Danis mentioned by Ezekiel in his eschatological vision of Israel asreceiving its portion of the land (48:1–2, 32). However, Dan isomitted from the list of the twelve tribes in Rev. 7:5–8, whereit is replaced by Manasseh. Although lists of the twelve tribes oftencount Joseph twice (by naming his sons, Ephraim and Manasseh,instead), the omitted tribe usually is Levi because of its priestlystatus. In this case, Dan’s absence is often attributed to thetribe’s persistent apostasy.

Elsewherein Scripture, the tribe of Dan is listed as one of the tribes, alongwith Reuben, Gad, Asher, Zebulun, and Naphtali, standing on MountEbal, the mount from which curses on Israel were pronounced (Deut.27:13); and it is reported that Dan failed to fight alongside Deborahand Barak (Judg. 5:17), was conquered by Ben-Hadad in the context ofhis pact with King Asa of Judah (1Kings 15:20; 2Chron.16:4), and produced Huram-Abi, a craftsman for Solomon’s temple(2Chron. 2:14).

Grape-producing plants are widely cultivated in Palestine.The first biblical reference to vine cultivation appears in Gen.9:20, where the restoration of the earth is implied by Noah’splanting of a vineyard. The appearance of the vine in Pharaoh’schief cupbearer’s dream implies widespread vine cultivation inEgypt (Gen. 40:9–11). Before the Israelites’ entry, theland of Canaan was also famous for the production of grapes and wine(cf. Num. 13:23; Deut. 6:11; 8:8). Several places around the regionare named in the OT for their fruitful vines: Eshkol (Num. 13:23),Sorek (Judg. 16:4), Sibmah, Heshbon, Jazer, Elealeh (Isa. 16:8–10),Helbon (Ezek. 27:18), Lebanon (Hos. 14:7), and En Gedi (Song 1:14).

Vinecultivation. Vinecultivation is detailed in the Bible. A hilly terrain is terraced,stones are cleared, and soil is plowed (Ps. 80:9; Isa. 5:2). Thewalls are built up with stones, often with a hedge of thorny bushes,to protect the vineyard from thieves and wild animals (Isa. 5:2).Then young vines are planted where water is supplied (Ezek. 19:10).As their branches develop, they are raised up on supports (Ezek.17:6). In the spring the vines are pruned so that they will bear goodgrapes (Lev. 25:3; John 15:2). Winepresses are hewn out of wood orrocky ground (Isa. 5:2). A watchtower is erected to overlook thevineyard, especially as the harvest season draws near (Job 27:18;Isa. 1:8; 27:3). When the grapes are ripe, they are gathered inbaskets and taken to winepresses (Hos. 9:2), while some are driedinto raisins. When the harvest is done, the poor in the village areallowed to enter the vineyard to gather the gleanings (Lev. 19:10;Deut. 24:21; cf. Isa. 24:13; Jer. 49:9; Mic. 7:1).

Sincethe production of grapes was of major importance to the Israelites,the continuing cycle of vine cultivation meant national peace andsecurity (cf. “under their own vine and under their own figtree” in 1Kings 4:25; Mic. 4:4; Zech. 3:10; joy of theharvest in Isa. 16:10; Jer. 48:33). Thus, the characteristicexpression of planting vineyards and consuming their fruits signalsGod’s blessing (2Kings 19:29; Ps. 107:37; Isa. 65:21–22;Jer. 31:5; 40:12; Ezek. 28:26; Amos 9:14), whereas not enjoying thefruit signifies misfortune (Deut. 20:6) or God’s judgment(Deut. 28:30; Ps. 78:47; Jer. 8:13; Amos 5:11; Hab. 3:17; Zeph.1:13). Likewise, a feast with wine signifies God’s blessing(Isa. 25:6; 55:1; Jer. 31:12; Joel 2:19; cf. Jesus turning water intowine [John 2:1–11]), while the lack of wine means God’sjudgment (Isa. 24:9, 11; 62:8; Hos. 2:9; 9:2; Joel 1:10).

OldTestament.The vine and the vineyard are important metaphors in the OT. Thefruitfulness of the vine often symbolizes the fruitfulness orblessedness of a person (e.g., Joseph in Gen. 49:22; a fruitful wifein Ps. 128:3). In Song of Songs the vineyard is not only the mainplace of love (2:13, 15; 6:11; 7:12) but also a metaphor for thewoman’s body (8:11); also, the “beloved” iscompared to “henna blossoms from the vineyards of En Gedi”(1:14), and her breasts to the “clusters of grapes on the vine”(7:8).

Themetaphors of the vine and the vineyard are also used of God’speople. In Ps. 80:8–13 Israel’s history is presented interms of the vine-cultivation cycle (cf. Jer. 2:21; Hos. 10:1). Asimilar story is heard in Isa. 5:1–7, which compares theIsraelites’ lack of justice and righteousness to the bearing ofwild grapes (cf. “vine of Sodom” in Deut. 32:32; “acorrupt, wild vine” in Jer. 2:21). Ezekiel also uses the vinemetaphor in rebuking the Israelites’ iniquity (Ezek. 15:2–4;17:3–10; 19:10–14). If the aforementioned passagesdescribe Israel’s history from its birth to judgment, Isa.27:2–6 presents God’s promise of restoration through thestory of the restored vineyard.

NewTestament.In five parables Jesus refers to vines and cultivation (Matt. 9:17pars.; 20:1–16; 21:28–32; 21:33–46 pars.; Luke13:6–9). Notable is the fact that God often is portrayed as theowner of the vineyard (Matt. 20:1; 21:28, 33; Luke 13:6). In Rev.14:18–20 God’s judgment upon his enemies is described bymeans of the imagery of the vine harvest, in which the enemies aretrampled like harvested grapes in the “great winepress of God’swrath” (cf. Isa. 63:1–6; Joel 3:13). In the vine metaphorin John 15:1–8, Jesus identifies God as the farmer, himself asthe “true vine,” and the believers as its branches. Nolonger are God’s people identified as the vine, which isexpected to bear good fruits; rather, Jesus is the vine, and thebelievers are his branches. So the fruitfulness of the branchesdepends on their adherence to the vine. Jesus’ use of the“fruit of the vine” at the Last Supper as the symbol ofhis atoning blood can be compared to his metaphoricalself-identification as the vine (Matt. 26:29; Mark 14:25; Luke22:18). See also Plants.

Grape-producing plants are widely cultivated in Palestine.The first biblical reference to vine cultivation appears in Gen.9:20, where the restoration of the earth is implied by Noah’splanting of a vineyard. The appearance of the vine in Pharaoh’schief cupbearer’s dream implies widespread vine cultivation inEgypt (Gen. 40:9–11). Before the Israelites’ entry, theland of Canaan was also famous for the production of grapes and wine(cf. Num. 13:23; Deut. 6:11; 8:8). Several places around the regionare named in the OT for their fruitful vines: Eshkol (Num. 13:23),Sorek (Judg. 16:4), Sibmah, Heshbon, Jazer, Elealeh (Isa. 16:8–10),Helbon (Ezek. 27:18), Lebanon (Hos. 14:7), and En Gedi (Song 1:14).

Vinecultivation. Vinecultivation is detailed in the Bible. A hilly terrain is terraced,stones are cleared, and soil is plowed (Ps. 80:9; Isa. 5:2). Thewalls are built up with stones, often with a hedge of thorny bushes,to protect the vineyard from thieves and wild animals (Isa. 5:2).Then young vines are planted where water is supplied (Ezek. 19:10).As their branches develop, they are raised up on supports (Ezek.17:6). In the spring the vines are pruned so that they will bear goodgrapes (Lev. 25:3; John 15:2). Winepresses are hewn out of wood orrocky ground (Isa. 5:2). A watchtower is erected to overlook thevineyard, especially as the harvest season draws near (Job 27:18;Isa. 1:8; 27:3). When the grapes are ripe, they are gathered inbaskets and taken to winepresses (Hos. 9:2), while some are driedinto raisins. When the harvest is done, the poor in the village areallowed to enter the vineyard to gather the gleanings (Lev. 19:10;Deut. 24:21; cf. Isa. 24:13; Jer. 49:9; Mic. 7:1).

Sincethe production of grapes was of major importance to the Israelites,the continuing cycle of vine cultivation meant national peace andsecurity (cf. “under their own vine and under their own figtree” in 1Kings 4:25; Mic. 4:4; Zech. 3:10; joy of theharvest in Isa. 16:10; Jer. 48:33). Thus, the characteristicexpression of planting vineyards and consuming their fruits signalsGod’s blessing (2Kings 19:29; Ps. 107:37; Isa. 65:21–22;Jer. 31:5; 40:12; Ezek. 28:26; Amos 9:14), whereas not enjoying thefruit signifies misfortune (Deut. 20:6) or God’s judgment(Deut. 28:30; Ps. 78:47; Jer. 8:13; Amos 5:11; Hab. 3:17; Zeph.1:13). Likewise, a feast with wine signifies God’s blessing(Isa. 25:6; 55:1; Jer. 31:12; Joel 2:19; cf. Jesus turning water intowine [John 2:1–11]), while the lack of wine means God’sjudgment (Isa. 24:9, 11; 62:8; Hos. 2:9; 9:2; Joel 1:10).

OldTestament.The vine and the vineyard are important metaphors in the OT. Thefruitfulness of the vine often symbolizes the fruitfulness orblessedness of a person (e.g., Joseph in Gen. 49:22; a fruitful wifein Ps. 128:3). In Song of Songs the vineyard is not only the mainplace of love (2:13, 15; 6:11; 7:12) but also a metaphor for thewoman’s body (8:11); also, the “beloved” iscompared to “henna blossoms from the vineyards of En Gedi”(1:14), and her breasts to the “clusters of grapes on the vine”(7:8).

Themetaphors of the vine and the vineyard are also used of God’speople. In Ps. 80:8–13 Israel’s history is presented interms of the vine-cultivation cycle (cf. Jer. 2:21; Hos. 10:1). Asimilar story is heard in Isa. 5:1–7, which compares theIsraelites’ lack of justice and righteousness to the bearing ofwild grapes (cf. “vine of Sodom” in Deut. 32:32; “acorrupt, wild vine” in Jer. 2:21). Ezekiel also uses the vinemetaphor in rebuking the Israelites’ iniquity (Ezek. 15:2–4;17:3–10; 19:10–14). If the aforementioned passagesdescribe Israel’s history from its birth to judgment, Isa.27:2–6 presents God’s promise of restoration through thestory of the restored vineyard.

NewTestament.In five parables Jesus refers to vines and cultivation (Matt. 9:17pars.; 20:1–16; 21:28–32; 21:33–46 pars.; Luke13:6–9). Notable is the fact that God often is portrayed as theowner of the vineyard (Matt. 20:1; 21:28, 33; Luke 13:6). In Rev.14:18–20 God’s judgment upon his enemies is described bymeans of the imagery of the vine harvest, in which the enemies aretrampled like harvested grapes in the “great winepress of God’swrath” (cf. Isa. 63:1–6; Joel 3:13). In the vine metaphorin John 15:1–8, Jesus identifies God as the farmer, himself asthe “true vine,” and the believers as its branches. Nolonger are God’s people identified as the vine, which isexpected to bear good fruits; rather, Jesus is the vine, and thebelievers are his branches. So the fruitfulness of the branchesdepends on their adherence to the vine. Jesus’ use of the“fruit of the vine” at the Last Supper as the symbol ofhis atoning blood can be compared to his metaphoricalself-identification as the vine (Matt. 26:29; Mark 14:25; Luke22:18). See also Plants.

The rendering of sexual services for payment. The biblicalreferences to prostitution are perhaps best organized under threeheadings: common or secular prostitution, cultic or sacredprostitution, and prostitution as metaphor.

Commonor Secular Prostitution

Thistype of prostitution is referred to in the OT by the Hebrew wordzonah and its derivatives (though some argue that on occasion theword might refer to sexual infidelityin general) and in the NT by the Greek term p*rnē. Among thewell-known prostitutes in the Bible are Rahab (Josh. 2:1–21),Jephthah’s mother (Judg. 11:1), Delilah (Judg. 16:1), and thetwo women in Solomon’s court (1Kings 3:16–28).(Although traditionoften identifies Mary Magdalene as a prostitute, she is not referredto this way in the Bible.)

Althoughthere is no explicit, absolute prohibition of prostitution in thepentateuchal laws, there are major restrictions. No father shouldcause or allow his daughter to become a prostitute (Lev. 19:29).Priests were not permitted to marry prostitutes (Lev. 21:7, 14),though this seems to imply a less stringent standard for the generalpopulace. A priest’s daughter who became a prostitute was to beburned in the fire (Lev. 21:9), but no such statement is made forIsraelites in general. Earnings from prostitution could not be usedfor payment of vows (Deut. 23:18).

Whileprostitution was not absolutely banned, it was the object of severedisapproval and contempt in Israelite society (Gen. 34:31; Judg.11:1–2). The book of Proverbs sternly warns young men againstturning to prostitutes (Prov. 6:26; 7:10; 23:27; 29:3), but thesewarnings also give evidence that prostitution, however contemptible,was tolerated in some measure. This attitude toward prostitutionaccords with that in the larger ancient Near Eastern context, thoughlaw codes from other Mesopotamian civilizations restricted andregulated prostitution rather than banning it outright. In the NT,Paul particularly refers to the spiritual problem involved in asexual relationship with prostitutes (1Cor. 6:15–16).Strikingly, however, Jesus includes repentant prostitutes among thecitizens of the kingdom of God (Matt. 21:31–32).

Sacredor Cultic Prostitution

TheNIV in several places has the term “shrine prostitute”(Gen. 38:21–22; Deut. 23:17; 1Kings 14:24; 15:12; 22:46;2Kings 23:7; Hos. 4:14). This is a translation of the Hebrewwords qadesh (masc.) and qedeshah (fem.), which come from the wordqadosh, which means “holy.” Traditionally, this has beenunderstood to refer to male and female prostitutes who performedtheir services in connection with a temple or shrine. The paymentswent into the temple treasuries, and the sexual acts were intended tomotivate the gods and goddesses to imitate them, assuring in turn thefertility of the land and fruitful crops. This was understood asbeing in accord with the practices of ancient Eastern fertilitycults. In recent scholarship, this traditional understanding has beenchallenged on two points. First, a number of scholars have foundlittle or no evidence that prostitution in the service of the templewas envisioned as stimulating similar activity among the gods,whether in Israel or in the larger Near Eastern world. Second, whileqedeshah certainly refers to a female prostitute in the service ofthe temple, it is less certain that qadesh refers to a maleprostitute; it may simply refer to male cultic personnel with noreference to sexual activity. Whatever the outcome of the discussion,the pentateuchal laws absolutely prohibit prostitution in connectionwith the temple or a shrine. Deuteronomy 23:17–18 seems toindicate that one of the motivations for women to offer sexual favorsin the service of the temple was to pay off a vow, but clearly itcondemns the practice.

Prostitutionas Metaphor

Alreadyin the pentateuchal legal texts, the sin of forsaking Yahweh, the Godof Israel, to serve and worship other gods was analogized toprostitution (Exod. 34:15; Lev. 17:7; 20:5–6; Num. 15:39; Deut.31:16). But the analogy becomes especially pronounced in the books ofthe prophets, which contain over half of the OT references toprostitution. Speaking through Jeremiah, God says to Israel, “Underevery spreading tree you lay down as a prostitute (Jer. 2:20). Inidolatry, Israel does not even “blush with shame” butinstead has the “brazen look of a prostitute” (Jer.3:1–3). Ezekiel portrays Israel and Judah as prostitutes who“lavished” their favors on any gods who passed by (Ezek.16:15). Indeed, God complains that Israel acted even worse than aprostitute, for “you scorned payment.... Allprostitutes receive gifts, but you give gifts to all your lovers”(Ezek. 16:31–34). Hosea, who was commanded by God to marry anadulterous woman in an extravagant act of love, mirroring God’sown love for the Israelites, buys and redeems his wife from herprostitution (Hos. 3:1–5). At times, other nations are alsometaphorically identified as prostitutes, such as Tyre (Isa.23:15–17), Nineveh (Nah. 3:4), and Babylon (Rev. 17:1, 15–16;19:2).